Strategies for promoting autonomous reading motivation: A multiple case study research in primary education
Main Article Content
Abstract
It is important to reveal strategies which foster students’ reading motivation in order to break through the declining trend in reading motivation throughout children’s educational careers. Consequently, the present study advances an underexposed field in reading motivation research by studying and identifying the strategies of teachers excellent in promoting fifth-grade students’ volitional or autonomous reading motivation through multiple case study analysis. Data on these excellent teachers were gathered from multiple sources (interviews with teachers, SEN coordinators, and school leaders; classroom observations; teacher and student questionnaires) and analysed. The results point to the teaching dimensions of autonomy support, structure, and involvement – as indicated by self-determination theory – as well as to reading aloud as critical strategies to promote students’ autonomous reading motivation in the classroom. A school culture supporting students’ and teachers’ interest in reading is also an essential part of reading promotion. The theoretical and practical significance of the study is discussed.
Article Details
How to Cite
De Naeghel, J., Van Keer, H., & Vanderlinde, R. (2014). Strategies for promoting autonomous reading motivation: A multiple case study research in primary education. Frontline Learning Research, 2(1), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v2i1.84
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References
Baker, L., & Wigfield, A. (1999). Dimensions of children's motivation for reading and their relations to reading activity and reading achievement. Reading Research Quarterly, 34, 452-477. doi:10.1598/RRQ.34.4.4
Becker, M., McElvany, N., & Kortenbruck, M. (2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading literacy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 773-785. doi: 10.1037/a0020084
Belmont, M., Skinner, E., Wellborn, J., & Connell, J. (1988). Teacher as social context: A measure of student perceptions of teacher provision of involvement, structure, and autonomy support [Tech. Rep. No. 102]. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester.
Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors' autonomy support and students' autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory perspective. Science Education, 84, 740-756. doi: 10.1002/1098-237X(200011)84:6<740::AID-SCE4>3.0.CO;2-3
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2009). Effects of an intervention based on self-determination theory on self-reported leisure-time physical activity participation. Psychology & Health, 24, 29-48. doi: 10.1080/08870440701809533
Creswell, J. W., & Plano, C. V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications.
Daniels, E., & Steres, M. (2011). Examining the effects of a school-wide reading culture on the engagement of middle school students. Research in Middle Level Education - Online, 35, 1-13.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1024-1037. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.53.6.1024
De Naeghel, J., Van Keer, H., Vansteenkiste, M., & Rosseel, Y. (2012). The relation between elementary students’ recreational and academic reading motivation, reading frequency, engagement, and comprehension: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 1006-1021. doi: 10.1037/a0027800
De Naeghel, J., & Van Keer, H. (2013). The relation of student and class-level characteristics to primary school students’ autonomous reading motivation: A multilevel approach. Journal of Research in Reading, 36, 351-370. doi: 0.1111/j.1467-9817.2013.12000.x
Edmunds, K. M., & Bauserman, K. L. (2006). What teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children. The Reading Teacher, 59, 414-424. doi: 10.1598/RT.59.5.1
Fisher, D., Flood, J;, Lapp, D., & Frey, N. (2004). Interactive reading-alouds: Is there a common set of implementation practices? The Reading Teacher, 58, 8-17. doi:10.1598/RT.58.1.1
Gambrell, L. B. (1996). Creating classroom cultures that foster reading motivation. The Reading Teacher, 50, 14-25.
Gambrell, L. B. (2011). Seven rules of engagement: What's most important to know about motivation to read. The Reading Teacher, 65, 172-178. doi: 10.1002/TRTR.01024
Gambrell, L. B., Palmer, B. M., Codling, R. M., & Mazzoni, S. A. (1996). Assessing motivation to read. Reading Teacher, 49, 518-533. doi: 10.1598/RT.49.7.2
Gaskins, I. W. (2008). Ten tenets of motivation for teaching struggling readers – And the rest of the class. In R. Fink & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), Inspiring reading success. Interest and motivation in an age of high-stakes testing (pp. 98-116). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Guthrie, J. T. (2004). Classroom contexts for engaged reading: An overview. In J. T. Guthrie, A. Wigfield & K. C. Perencevich (Eds). Motivating reading comprehension. Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (pp. 1-24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Guthrie, J. T., & Cox, K. E. (2001). Classroom conditions for motivation and engagement in reading. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 283-302. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1044
Guthrie, J. T., McRae, A., & Klauda, S. L. (2007). Contributions of concept-oriented reading instruction to knowledge about interventions for motivations in reading. Educational Psychologist, 42, 237-250. doi: 10.1080/00461520701621087
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research: Volume III (pp. 403-422). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Humenick, N. M., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., & Barbosa, P. (2006). Influences of stimulating tasks on reading motivation and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 99, 232-245. doi:10.3200/JOER.99.4.232-246
Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., & VonSecker, C. (2000). Effects of integrated instruction on motivation and strategy use in reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 331-341. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.331
Ivey, G., & Broaddus, K. (2001). “Just plain reading”: A survey of what makes students want to read in middle school classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 350–377. doi: 10.1598/RRQ.36.4.2
Lane, H. B., & Wright, T. L. (2011). Maximizing the effectiveness of reading aloud. The Reading Teacher, 60, .668-675. doi: 10.1598/RT.60.7.7
Marinak, B.A. & Gambrell, L.B. (2007). Choosing and using informational text for instruction in the primary grades. In B.J. Guzzetti (Eds.) Literacy for a New Millennium: Early literacy. (pp. 141-154). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Meyer, L.A., Wardrop, J.L., Linn, R.L., & Hastings, C.N. (1993). Effects of ability and settings on kindergartners’ reading performance. Journal of Educational Research, 86, 142–160. doi: 10.1080/00220671.1993.9941153
Miles, M., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mohan, L., Lundeberg, M. A., & Reffitt, K. (2008). Studying teachers and schools: Michael Pressley's legacy and directions for future research. Educational Psychologist, 43, 107-118. doi: 10.1080/00461520801942292
Morrow, L.M., & Gambrell, L.B. (2002). Literature-based instruction in the early years. In S.B. Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 348–360). New York: Guilford.
Mouratadis, M., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Sideridis, G. (2008). The motivating role of positive feedback in sport and physical education: Evidence for a motivational model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, 240-268.
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Kennedy, A. M., & Foy, P. (2007). IEA’s progress in international reading literacy study in primary school in 40 countries. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMMS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2004). Learning for tomorrow’s world. First results from PISA 2003. Paris: OECD.
Pecjak, S., & Kosir, K. (2008). Reading motivation and reading efficiency in third and seventh grade pupils in relation to teachers' activities in the classroom. Studia Psychologica, 50, 147-168.
Pressley, M., Rankin, J., & Yokoi, L. (1996). A survey of instructional practices of primary teachers nominated as effective in promoting literacy. Elementary School Journal, 96, 363-384. doi: 10.1086/461834
Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. In E. L. Deci, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 183-203). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Reeve, J. (2009). Understanding motivation and emotion. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J. (2004). Enhancing students' engagement by increasing teachers' autonomy support. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 147-169. doi:10.1023/B:MOEM .0000032312.95499.6f
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Santa, C. M., Williams, C. K., Ogle, D., Farstrup, A. E., Au, K. H., Baker, B. M., et al. (2000). Excellent reading teachers: A position statement of the International Reading Association. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44, 193-199.
Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2005). Antecedents and outcomes of self-determination in three life domains: The role of parents' and teachers' autonomy support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 589-604. doi: 10.1007/s10964-005-8948-y
Sierens, E. (2010). Autonomy-supportive, structuring, and psychologically controlling teaching: antecedents, mediators, and outcomes in late adolescents [Unpublished dissertation]. Leuven: KULeuven.
Sierens, E., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., & Dochy, F. (2009). The interactive effect of perceived teacher autonomy support and structure in the prediction of self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 57-68. doi: 0.1348/000709908X304398
Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom - Reciprocal effects of teacher-behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571-581. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
Steckel, B. (2009). Fulfilling the promise of literacy coaches in urban schools: What does it take to make an impact? The Reading Teacher, 63, 14-23. doi: 10.1598/RT.63.1.2
Swalander, L., & Taube, K. (2007). Influences of family based prerequisites, reading attitude, and self-regulation on reading ability. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32, 206-230. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.01.002
Taylor, B. M., Pearson, P. D., Clark, K., & Walpole, S. (2010). Effective schools and accomplished teachers: Lessons about primary-grade reading instruction in low-income schools. The Elementary School Journal, 101, 121-165. doi: 10.1086/499662
Tessier, D., Sarrazin, P., & Ntoumanis, N. (2008). The effects of an experimental programme to support students' autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 23(3), 239-253. doi: 10.1007/BF03172998
Vanderburg, M., & Stephens, D. (2010). The impact of literacy coaches: What teachers value and how teachers change. The Elementary School Journal, 111, 141-163. doi: 10.1086/653473
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and autonomy-supportive versus internally controlling communication style on early adolescents' academic achievement. Child Development, 76, 483-501. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00858.x
Walpole, S., & Blamey, K. L. (2008). Elementary literacy coaches: The reality of dual roles The Reading Teacher, 62, 222-231. doi: 10.1598/RT.62.3.4
Watkins, M. W., & Coffey, D. Y. (2004). Reading motivation: Multidimensional and indeterminate. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 110-118. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.110
Whitehurst, G.J., Zevenbergen, A.A., Crone, D.A., Schultz, M.D., Velting, O.N., & Fischel, J.E. (1999). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention from Head Start through second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 261–272. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.261
Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J. T., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Klauda, S. L., Mcrae, A., & Barbosa, P. (2008). Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 432-445. doi:10.1002/pits.20307
Yin, R. K. (1989). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Becker, M., McElvany, N., & Kortenbruck, M. (2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading literacy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 773-785. doi: 10.1037/a0020084
Belmont, M., Skinner, E., Wellborn, J., & Connell, J. (1988). Teacher as social context: A measure of student perceptions of teacher provision of involvement, structure, and autonomy support [Tech. Rep. No. 102]. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester.
Black, A. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). The effects of instructors' autonomy support and students' autonomous motivation on learning organic chemistry: A self-determination theory perspective. Science Education, 84, 740-756. doi: 10.1002/1098-237X(200011)84:6<740::AID-SCE4>3.0.CO;2-3
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2009). Effects of an intervention based on self-determination theory on self-reported leisure-time physical activity participation. Psychology & Health, 24, 29-48. doi: 10.1080/08870440701809533
Creswell, J. W., & Plano, C. V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications.
Daniels, E., & Steres, M. (2011). Examining the effects of a school-wide reading culture on the engagement of middle school students. Research in Middle Level Education - Online, 35, 1-13.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1024-1037. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.53.6.1024
De Naeghel, J., Van Keer, H., Vansteenkiste, M., & Rosseel, Y. (2012). The relation between elementary students’ recreational and academic reading motivation, reading frequency, engagement, and comprehension: A self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 1006-1021. doi: 10.1037/a0027800
De Naeghel, J., & Van Keer, H. (2013). The relation of student and class-level characteristics to primary school students’ autonomous reading motivation: A multilevel approach. Journal of Research in Reading, 36, 351-370. doi: 0.1111/j.1467-9817.2013.12000.x
Edmunds, K. M., & Bauserman, K. L. (2006). What teachers can learn about reading motivation through conversations with children. The Reading Teacher, 59, 414-424. doi: 10.1598/RT.59.5.1
Fisher, D., Flood, J;, Lapp, D., & Frey, N. (2004). Interactive reading-alouds: Is there a common set of implementation practices? The Reading Teacher, 58, 8-17. doi:10.1598/RT.58.1.1
Gambrell, L. B. (1996). Creating classroom cultures that foster reading motivation. The Reading Teacher, 50, 14-25.
Gambrell, L. B. (2011). Seven rules of engagement: What's most important to know about motivation to read. The Reading Teacher, 65, 172-178. doi: 10.1002/TRTR.01024
Gambrell, L. B., Palmer, B. M., Codling, R. M., & Mazzoni, S. A. (1996). Assessing motivation to read. Reading Teacher, 49, 518-533. doi: 10.1598/RT.49.7.2
Gaskins, I. W. (2008). Ten tenets of motivation for teaching struggling readers – And the rest of the class. In R. Fink & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), Inspiring reading success. Interest and motivation in an age of high-stakes testing (pp. 98-116). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Guthrie, J. T. (2004). Classroom contexts for engaged reading: An overview. In J. T. Guthrie, A. Wigfield & K. C. Perencevich (Eds). Motivating reading comprehension. Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (pp. 1-24). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Guthrie, J. T., & Cox, K. E. (2001). Classroom conditions for motivation and engagement in reading. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 283-302. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1044
Guthrie, J. T., McRae, A., & Klauda, S. L. (2007). Contributions of concept-oriented reading instruction to knowledge about interventions for motivations in reading. Educational Psychologist, 42, 237-250. doi: 10.1080/00461520701621087
Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research: Volume III (pp. 403-422). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Humenick, N. M., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., & Barbosa, P. (2006). Influences of stimulating tasks on reading motivation and comprehension. Journal of Educational Research, 99, 232-245. doi:10.3200/JOER.99.4.232-246
Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., & VonSecker, C. (2000). Effects of integrated instruction on motivation and strategy use in reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 331-341. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.331
Ivey, G., & Broaddus, K. (2001). “Just plain reading”: A survey of what makes students want to read in middle school classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 350–377. doi: 10.1598/RRQ.36.4.2
Lane, H. B., & Wright, T. L. (2011). Maximizing the effectiveness of reading aloud. The Reading Teacher, 60, .668-675. doi: 10.1598/RT.60.7.7
Marinak, B.A. & Gambrell, L.B. (2007). Choosing and using informational text for instruction in the primary grades. In B.J. Guzzetti (Eds.) Literacy for a New Millennium: Early literacy. (pp. 141-154). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Meyer, L.A., Wardrop, J.L., Linn, R.L., & Hastings, C.N. (1993). Effects of ability and settings on kindergartners’ reading performance. Journal of Educational Research, 86, 142–160. doi: 10.1080/00220671.1993.9941153
Miles, M., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mohan, L., Lundeberg, M. A., & Reffitt, K. (2008). Studying teachers and schools: Michael Pressley's legacy and directions for future research. Educational Psychologist, 43, 107-118. doi: 10.1080/00461520801942292
Morrow, L.M., & Gambrell, L.B. (2002). Literature-based instruction in the early years. In S.B. Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 348–360). New York: Guilford.
Mouratadis, M., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Sideridis, G. (2008). The motivating role of positive feedback in sport and physical education: Evidence for a motivational model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, 240-268.
Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Kennedy, A. M., & Foy, P. (2007). IEA’s progress in international reading literacy study in primary school in 40 countries. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMMS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2004). Learning for tomorrow’s world. First results from PISA 2003. Paris: OECD.
Pecjak, S., & Kosir, K. (2008). Reading motivation and reading efficiency in third and seventh grade pupils in relation to teachers' activities in the classroom. Studia Psychologica, 50, 147-168.
Pressley, M., Rankin, J., & Yokoi, L. (1996). A survey of instructional practices of primary teachers nominated as effective in promoting literacy. Elementary School Journal, 96, 363-384. doi: 10.1086/461834
Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. In E. L. Deci, & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 183-203). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Reeve, J. (2009). Understanding motivation and emotion. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reeve, J., Jang, H., Carrell, D., Jeon, S., & Barch, J. (2004). Enhancing students' engagement by increasing teachers' autonomy support. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 147-169. doi:10.1023/B:MOEM .0000032312.95499.6f
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Santa, C. M., Williams, C. K., Ogle, D., Farstrup, A. E., Au, K. H., Baker, B. M., et al. (2000). Excellent reading teachers: A position statement of the International Reading Association. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44, 193-199.
Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2005). Antecedents and outcomes of self-determination in three life domains: The role of parents' and teachers' autonomy support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 589-604. doi: 10.1007/s10964-005-8948-y
Sierens, E. (2010). Autonomy-supportive, structuring, and psychologically controlling teaching: antecedents, mediators, and outcomes in late adolescents [Unpublished dissertation]. Leuven: KULeuven.
Sierens, E., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., Soenens, B., & Dochy, F. (2009). The interactive effect of perceived teacher autonomy support and structure in the prediction of self-regulated learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 57-68. doi: 0.1348/000709908X304398
Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom - Reciprocal effects of teacher-behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571-581. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.571
Steckel, B. (2009). Fulfilling the promise of literacy coaches in urban schools: What does it take to make an impact? The Reading Teacher, 63, 14-23. doi: 10.1598/RT.63.1.2
Swalander, L., & Taube, K. (2007). Influences of family based prerequisites, reading attitude, and self-regulation on reading ability. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 32, 206-230. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2006.01.002
Taylor, B. M., Pearson, P. D., Clark, K., & Walpole, S. (2010). Effective schools and accomplished teachers: Lessons about primary-grade reading instruction in low-income schools. The Elementary School Journal, 101, 121-165. doi: 10.1086/499662
Tessier, D., Sarrazin, P., & Ntoumanis, N. (2008). The effects of an experimental programme to support students' autonomy on the overt behaviours of physical education teachers. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 23(3), 239-253. doi: 10.1007/BF03172998
Vanderburg, M., & Stephens, D. (2010). The impact of literacy coaches: What teachers value and how teachers change. The Elementary School Journal, 111, 141-163. doi: 10.1086/653473
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and autonomy-supportive versus internally controlling communication style on early adolescents' academic achievement. Child Development, 76, 483-501. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00858.x
Walpole, S., & Blamey, K. L. (2008). Elementary literacy coaches: The reality of dual roles The Reading Teacher, 62, 222-231. doi: 10.1598/RT.62.3.4
Watkins, M. W., & Coffey, D. Y. (2004). Reading motivation: Multidimensional and indeterminate. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 110-118. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.110
Whitehurst, G.J., Zevenbergen, A.A., Crone, D.A., Schultz, M.D., Velting, O.N., & Fischel, J.E. (1999). Outcomes of an emergent literacy intervention from Head Start through second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 261–272. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.261
Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J. T., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Klauda, S. L., Mcrae, A., & Barbosa, P. (2008). Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 432-445. doi:10.1002/pits.20307
Yin, R. K. (1989). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.