What Works in School? Expert and Novice Teachers’ Beliefs about School Effectiveness
Main Article Content
Abstract
In 2009, John Hattie first published his extensive metasynthesis concerning determinants of student achievement. It provides an answer to the question: “What works in school?” The present study examines how this question is answered by pre- and in-service teachers, how their beliefs correspond to the current state of research and whether they differ according to the teachers' level of expertise. Thus, it takes on a novel approach as it draws on data from two sources in the field of education -- empirical research and teachers’ beliefs -- and examines their similarities and differences. The teachers’ beliefs were elicited by asking N = 729 participants to estimate the effect sizes of several determinants of student achievement. Those were compared to the empirical effect sizes found by Hattie (2009). Profile correlations showed that expert teachers’ beliefs are more congruent with current research findings than those of novice teachers. We further examined where expert and novice teachers’ beliefs differ substantially from each other by using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and comparing group means in latent variables. Our findings suggest that teachers’ beliefs about school effectiveness are related to professional experience: Expert teachers showed a stronger overall congruence with empirical evidence, scoring higher in achievement-related variables and lower in variables concerning surface- and infrastructural conditions of schooling as well as student-internal factors. Results are discussed with regard to teacher-education practices that emphasize research findings and challenge existing beliefs of (prospective) teachers.
Article Details
How to Cite
Fleckenstein, J., Zimmermann, F., Köller, O., & Möller, J. (2015). What Works in School? Expert and Novice Teachers’ Beliefs about School Effectiveness. Frontline Learning Research, 3(2), 27–46. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v3i2.162
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References
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Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Barcelos, A. M. F. (2003). Researching beliefs about SLA: A critical review. In P. Kalaja and A. M. F. Barcelos (Eds.), Beliefs about SLA: New research approaches (pp. 7-33). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Bates, A. B., Latham, N. & Kim, J. (2011). Linking preservice teachers' mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics teaching efficacy to their mathematical performance. School Science and Mathematics. 111, 325-333.
Bauer, J. & Prenzel, M. (2012). European teacher training reforms. Science, 336, 1642-1643.
Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. (2006). Stichwort: Professionelle Kompetenz von Lehrkräften. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 9, 469-520.
Berliner, D. (2004). Describing the behavior and documenting the accomplishments of expert teachers. Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 24, 200-214.
Borg, M. (2001). Teachers’ Beliefs. ELT Journal, 55, 186-188.
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36, 81-109.
Bromme, R. (1997). Kompetenzen, Funktionen und unterrichtliches Handeln des Lehrers. In F. E. Weinert (Ed.), Psychologie des Unterrichts und der Schule. Enzyklopaedie der Psychologie (Vol. 3, pp. 177-212). Goettingen: Hogrefe.
Bromme, R. (2003). On the limitations of the theory metaphor for the study of teachers' expert knowledge. In M. Kompf & P. Denicolo (Eds.). Teacher thinking twenty years on: Revisiting persisting problems and advances in education (pp. 283-294). Liss, Nl: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Bruniges, M. (2005). An evidence-based approach to teaching and learning. http://research.acer.edu.au/research_conference_2005/15.
Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 456-466.
Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology (pp. 709-725). New York: Macmillan.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing MI. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 235-55.
Clark, C. M. (1988). Asking the right questions about teacher preparation: Contributions of research on teacher thinking. Educational Researcher, 17, 5-12.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Zeichner, K. (Eds.). (2005). Studying teacher education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. F., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weifeld, F. D., et al. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Cotton, K. (1995). Effective schooling practices: A research synthesis. 1995 Update. School Improvement Research Series. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world. What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. Feltovich, and R. R. Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.). Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (pp. 685-706). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptations to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305.
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., & Hoffman, R. R. (2006). The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational Research, 38, 47-65.
Fraser, B. J., Walberg, H. J., Welch, W. W., & Hattie, J. A. (1987). Syntheses of educational productivity research. International Journal of Educational Research, 11, 147-252.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: Teacher knowledge and learning to teach. Language Teaching, 35, 1-13.
Haney, J. J., Lumpe, A. T., & Czerniak, C. M. (2003). Constructivist beliefs about the science classroom learning environment: Perspectives from teachers, administrators, parents, community members, and students. School Science and Mathematics, 103, 366-377.
Hart, L. C. (2004). Beliefs and perspectives of first-year, alternative preparation, elementary teachers in urban classrooms. School Science & Mathematics, 104, 79-88.
Harvey, O. J. (1986). Belief systems and attitudes toward the death penalty and other punishments. Journal of Psychology, 54, 143-159.
Hascher, T. (2012). Lernfeld Praktikum – Evidenzbasierte Entwicklungen in der Lehrer/innenbildung. [Learning setting student teaching – Evidence-based developments in teacher education]. Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung, 2, 109-129. DOI 10.1007/s35834-012-0032-6.
Hattie, J. (2003). Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence? Paper presented at the Australian Council for Educational Research annual conference on building teacher quality.
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London & New York: Routledge.
Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers. London: Routledge.
Hogan, T., Rabinowitz, M., & Craven, J. A. (2003). Representation in teaching: Inferences from research of expert and novice teachers. Educational Psychologist, 38, 235-247.
Jencks, C., Smith, M. S., Ackland, H., Bane, M. J., Cohen, D., Grintlis, H., et al. (1973). Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.
Author (year). What works best in school? Hatties Befunde zu Effekten von Schul- und Unterrichtsvariablen auf Schulleistungen. [What works best in school? Hattie’s findings concerning school and instructional effectiveness on student achievement]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 59, 72-78.
Kunter, M., & Pohlmann, B. (2009). Lehrer. In J. Möller & E. Wild (Eds.), Einführung in die Pädagogische Psychologie (pp. 261-282). Berlin: Springer.
Leatham, K. (2006). Viewing mathematics teachers’ beliefs as sensible systems. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 9, 91-102.
Levine, D.K., & Lezotte, L.W. (1990). Unusually effective schools: A review and analysis of research and practice. Madison, Wise: Nat. Centre for Effective Schools Research and Development.
Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Meredith, W., & Teresi, J. A. (2006). An essay on measurement and factorial invariance. Medical Care, 44, 69-77.
Muijs, R. D., & Rejnolds, D. (2001). Teachers' beliefs and behaviors: What really matters. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 37, 3-15.
Muthén, L.K. and Muthén, B.O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide. Seventh edition.
Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2002). What teachers should know and be able to do. Arlington.
Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19, 317-328.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307-332.
Peterson, P., Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P., & Loef, M. (1989). Teachers' pedagogical content beliefs in mathematics. Cognition and Instruction, 6, 1-40.
Purkey, S.C., & Smith, M.S. (1983). Effective schools: A review. The Elementary School Journal, 83, 427-452.
Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula, T. Buttery, & E. Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 137-147). New York: Macmillan.
Ross, J. A. (1992). Teacher efficacy and the effect of coaching on student achievement. Canadian Journal of Education, 17, 51-65.
Ross, J. A. (1998). The antecedents and consequences of teacher efficacy. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Advances in research on teaching, Vol. 7 (pp. 49-74). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Sammons, P., Hillman, J., & Mortimore, P. (1995). Key characteristics of effective schools: A review of school effectiveness research. London: OFSTED.
Scheerens, J. (1992). Effective schooling, research, theory and practice. London: Cassell.
Scheerens, J. (2004). Review of school and instructional effectiveness research. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005, The Quality Imperative. UNESCO, 2005/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/44.
Scheerens, J., & Bosker, R. J. (1997). The foundations of educational effectiveness. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.
Seidel, T., & Shavelson, R. J. (2007). Teaching effectiveness research in the past decade: The role of theory and research design in disentangling meta-analysis results. Review of Educational Research, 77, 454-499.
Sheeran, P. (2002). Intention-behavior relations: A conceptual and empirical review. In W. Strobe and M. Hewstone (Eds.) European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 12. Chichester: Wiley, 1-30.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15, 4-14.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22.
Silver, N. C., & Dunlap, W. P. (1987). Averaging correlation coefficients: Should Fisher’s z transformation be used? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 146-148.
Staub, F. C., & Stern, E. (2002). The nature of teachers’ pedagogical content beliefs matters for students’ achievement gains: Quasi-experimental evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 344-355.
Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: Pre-service teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and classroom practices, Journal of Teacher Education, 51(2), 112-121.
Tabachnik, B. R., Popkewitz, T., & Zeichner, K. (1979-1980). Teacher education and the professional perspectives of student teachers. Interchange, 80, 12-29.
Terhart, E. (2011). Has John Hattie really found the holy grail of research on teaching? An extended review of Visible Learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(3), 425-438.
Tschannen-Moran, M., &Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive concept. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248.
Verloop, N., Van Driel, J., & Meijer, P. (2001). Teacher knowledge and the knowledge base of teaching. International Journal of Education Research, 35, 441-461.
Walberg, H. J. (1986). Synthesis of research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching. New York: Macmillan.
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D. & Walberg, H. J. (1990). What influences learning? A content analysis of review literature. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 30-43.
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D. & Walberg, H. J. (1993). Toward a knowledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research, 63, 249-294.
Weinstein, C. S. (1989). Teacher education students' preconceptions of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 40, 53-60.
Wenden, A. L. (1999). An introduction to metacognitive knowledge and beliefs in language learning: Beyond the basics. System, 27, 435-441.
Woods, D. (1996). Teacher cognition in language teaching: Beliefs, decision-making, and classroom practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy,W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers' sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 81-91.
Woolfolk, A. E., Rosoff, B., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Teachers' sense of efficacy and their beliefs about managing students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 6, 137-148.
Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Davis, H. A. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy and its influence on the achievement of adolescents. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy of adolescents (pp. 117-137). Greenwich, Connecticut: Information Age Publishing.
Woolfolk Hoy, A., Davis, H., & Pape, S. J. (2006). Teacher knowledge and beliefs. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology (2 ed., pp. 715-737). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Yook, C. M. (2010). Korean teachers' beliefs about English language education and their impacts upon the Ministry of Education-initiated reforms. Applied Linguistics and English as a Second Language Dissertations. Paper 14.
Zell, E., & Krizan, Z. (2014). Do people have insight into their abilities? A metasynthesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9, 111-125.
Zheng, H. (2009). A review of research on pre-service teachers’ beliefs and practices. Journal of Cambridge Studies, 4, 73-81.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Barcelos, A. M. F. (2003). Researching beliefs about SLA: A critical review. In P. Kalaja and A. M. F. Barcelos (Eds.), Beliefs about SLA: New research approaches (pp. 7-33). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Bates, A. B., Latham, N. & Kim, J. (2011). Linking preservice teachers' mathematics self-efficacy and mathematics teaching efficacy to their mathematical performance. School Science and Mathematics. 111, 325-333.
Bauer, J. & Prenzel, M. (2012). European teacher training reforms. Science, 336, 1642-1643.
Baumert, J., & Kunter, M. (2006). Stichwort: Professionelle Kompetenz von Lehrkräften. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 9, 469-520.
Berliner, D. (2004). Describing the behavior and documenting the accomplishments of expert teachers. Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 24, 200-214.
Borg, M. (2001). Teachers’ Beliefs. ELT Journal, 55, 186-188.
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36, 81-109.
Bromme, R. (1997). Kompetenzen, Funktionen und unterrichtliches Handeln des Lehrers. In F. E. Weinert (Ed.), Psychologie des Unterrichts und der Schule. Enzyklopaedie der Psychologie (Vol. 3, pp. 177-212). Goettingen: Hogrefe.
Bromme, R. (2003). On the limitations of the theory metaphor for the study of teachers' expert knowledge. In M. Kompf & P. Denicolo (Eds.). Teacher thinking twenty years on: Revisiting persisting problems and advances in education (pp. 283-294). Liss, Nl: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Bruniges, M. (2005). An evidence-based approach to teaching and learning. http://research.acer.edu.au/research_conference_2005/15.
Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 456-466.
Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology (pp. 709-725). New York: Macmillan.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing MI. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 235-55.
Clark, C. M. (1988). Asking the right questions about teacher preparation: Contributions of research on teacher thinking. Educational Researcher, 17, 5-12.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Zeichner, K. (Eds.). (2005). Studying teacher education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. F., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weifeld, F. D., et al. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Cotton, K. (1995). Effective schooling practices: A research synthesis. 1995 Update. School Improvement Research Series. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world. What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. Feltovich, and R. R. Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.). Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (pp. 685-706). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptations to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305.
Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. J., & Hoffman, R. R. (2006). The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational Research, 38, 47-65.
Fraser, B. J., Walberg, H. J., Welch, W. W., & Hattie, J. A. (1987). Syntheses of educational productivity research. International Journal of Educational Research, 11, 147-252.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: Teacher knowledge and learning to teach. Language Teaching, 35, 1-13.
Haney, J. J., Lumpe, A. T., & Czerniak, C. M. (2003). Constructivist beliefs about the science classroom learning environment: Perspectives from teachers, administrators, parents, community members, and students. School Science and Mathematics, 103, 366-377.
Hart, L. C. (2004). Beliefs and perspectives of first-year, alternative preparation, elementary teachers in urban classrooms. School Science & Mathematics, 104, 79-88.
Harvey, O. J. (1986). Belief systems and attitudes toward the death penalty and other punishments. Journal of Psychology, 54, 143-159.
Hascher, T. (2012). Lernfeld Praktikum – Evidenzbasierte Entwicklungen in der Lehrer/innenbildung. [Learning setting student teaching – Evidence-based developments in teacher education]. Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung, 2, 109-129. DOI 10.1007/s35834-012-0032-6.
Hattie, J. (2003). Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence? Paper presented at the Australian Council for Educational Research annual conference on building teacher quality.
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London & New York: Routledge.
Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers. London: Routledge.
Hogan, T., Rabinowitz, M., & Craven, J. A. (2003). Representation in teaching: Inferences from research of expert and novice teachers. Educational Psychologist, 38, 235-247.
Jencks, C., Smith, M. S., Ackland, H., Bane, M. J., Cohen, D., Grintlis, H., et al. (1973). Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.
Author (year). What works best in school? Hatties Befunde zu Effekten von Schul- und Unterrichtsvariablen auf Schulleistungen. [What works best in school? Hattie’s findings concerning school and instructional effectiveness on student achievement]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 59, 72-78.
Kunter, M., & Pohlmann, B. (2009). Lehrer. In J. Möller & E. Wild (Eds.), Einführung in die Pädagogische Psychologie (pp. 261-282). Berlin: Springer.
Leatham, K. (2006). Viewing mathematics teachers’ beliefs as sensible systems. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 9, 91-102.
Levine, D.K., & Lezotte, L.W. (1990). Unusually effective schools: A review and analysis of research and practice. Madison, Wise: Nat. Centre for Effective Schools Research and Development.
Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Meredith, W., & Teresi, J. A. (2006). An essay on measurement and factorial invariance. Medical Care, 44, 69-77.
Muijs, R. D., & Rejnolds, D. (2001). Teachers' beliefs and behaviors: What really matters. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 37, 3-15.
Muthén, L.K. and Muthén, B.O. (1998-2012). Mplus user’s guide. Seventh edition.
Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (2002). What teachers should know and be able to do. Arlington.
Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19, 317-328.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307-332.
Peterson, P., Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P., & Loef, M. (1989). Teachers' pedagogical content beliefs in mathematics. Cognition and Instruction, 6, 1-40.
Purkey, S.C., & Smith, M.S. (1983). Effective schools: A review. The Elementary School Journal, 83, 427-452.
Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula, T. Buttery, & E. Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 137-147). New York: Macmillan.
Ross, J. A. (1992). Teacher efficacy and the effect of coaching on student achievement. Canadian Journal of Education, 17, 51-65.
Ross, J. A. (1998). The antecedents and consequences of teacher efficacy. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Advances in research on teaching, Vol. 7 (pp. 49-74). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Sammons, P., Hillman, J., & Mortimore, P. (1995). Key characteristics of effective schools: A review of school effectiveness research. London: OFSTED.
Scheerens, J. (1992). Effective schooling, research, theory and practice. London: Cassell.
Scheerens, J. (2004). Review of school and instructional effectiveness research. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005, The Quality Imperative. UNESCO, 2005/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/44.
Scheerens, J., & Bosker, R. J. (1997). The foundations of educational effectiveness. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.
Seidel, T., & Shavelson, R. J. (2007). Teaching effectiveness research in the past decade: The role of theory and research design in disentangling meta-analysis results. Review of Educational Research, 77, 454-499.
Sheeran, P. (2002). Intention-behavior relations: A conceptual and empirical review. In W. Strobe and M. Hewstone (Eds.) European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 12. Chichester: Wiley, 1-30.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15, 4-14.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22.
Silver, N. C., & Dunlap, W. P. (1987). Averaging correlation coefficients: Should Fisher’s z transformation be used? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 146-148.
Staub, F. C., & Stern, E. (2002). The nature of teachers’ pedagogical content beliefs matters for students’ achievement gains: Quasi-experimental evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 344-355.
Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: Pre-service teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and classroom practices, Journal of Teacher Education, 51(2), 112-121.
Tabachnik, B. R., Popkewitz, T., & Zeichner, K. (1979-1980). Teacher education and the professional perspectives of student teachers. Interchange, 80, 12-29.
Terhart, E. (2011). Has John Hattie really found the holy grail of research on teaching? An extended review of Visible Learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(3), 425-438.
Tschannen-Moran, M., &Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive concept. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248.
Verloop, N., Van Driel, J., & Meijer, P. (2001). Teacher knowledge and the knowledge base of teaching. International Journal of Education Research, 35, 441-461.
Walberg, H. J. (1986). Synthesis of research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching. New York: Macmillan.
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D. & Walberg, H. J. (1990). What influences learning? A content analysis of review literature. Journal of Educational Research, 84, 30-43.
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D. & Walberg, H. J. (1993). Toward a knowledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research, 63, 249-294.
Weinstein, C. S. (1989). Teacher education students' preconceptions of teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 40, 53-60.
Wenden, A. L. (1999). An introduction to metacognitive knowledge and beliefs in language learning: Beyond the basics. System, 27, 435-441.
Woods, D. (1996). Teacher cognition in language teaching: Beliefs, decision-making, and classroom practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy,W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers' sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 81-91.
Woolfolk, A. E., Rosoff, B., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Teachers' sense of efficacy and their beliefs about managing students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 6, 137-148.
Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Davis, H. A. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy and its influence on the achievement of adolescents. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy of adolescents (pp. 117-137). Greenwich, Connecticut: Information Age Publishing.
Woolfolk Hoy, A., Davis, H., & Pape, S. J. (2006). Teacher knowledge and beliefs. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology (2 ed., pp. 715-737). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Yook, C. M. (2010). Korean teachers' beliefs about English language education and their impacts upon the Ministry of Education-initiated reforms. Applied Linguistics and English as a Second Language Dissertations. Paper 14.
Zell, E., & Krizan, Z. (2014). Do people have insight into their abilities? A metasynthesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9, 111-125.
Zheng, H. (2009). A review of research on pre-service teachers’ beliefs and practices. Journal of Cambridge Studies, 4, 73-81.