Effects of Hierarchical Levels on Social Network Structures within Communities of Learning
Main Article Content
Abstract
Facilitating an interpersonal knowledge transfer among employees constitutes a key building block in setting up organizational training initiatives. With practitioners and researchers looking for innovative training methods, online Communities of Learning (CoL) have been promoted as a promising methodology to foster this kind of transfer. However, past research has only provided limited data from actual organizations and largely neglected characteristics that constitute a major obstacle to such collaborative processes, namely participants’ hierarchical levels. The current study addresses these shortcomings by providing empirical evidence from 25 CoL of an online training program, provided for 249 staff members of a global organization. Using social network analysis, we are able to show significant differences in participants’ network behaviour and position based on their hierarchical rank. This translates into higher in- and out-degree network ties, as well as centrality scores among participants from higher up the hierarchical ladder. Finally, based on a longitudinal analysis of all indicated network measures, our results indicate that the main trend develops predominately during the first half of the training program. By incorporating these insights into the implementation of future CoL, it is not only possible to anticipate participants’ behaviour. Our findings also allow to draw conclusions about how collaborative activities within CoL should be designed and facilitated, in order to provide participants with a valuable learning experience.
Article Details
How to Cite
Rehm, M., Gijselaers, W., & Segers, M. (2014). Effects of Hierarchical Levels on Social Network Structures within Communities of Learning. Frontline Learning Research, 2(2), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v2i2.85
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References
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Berge, Z. L. (1995). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendations from the field. Educational Technology, 15(1), 22-30.
Bird, A. (1994). Careers as Repositories of Knowledge - a New Perspective on Boundaryless Careers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(4), 325-344. doi: 10.1002/job.4030150404
Borgatti, S. P. (2002). NetDraw: Graph visualization software. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.
Borgatti, S. P., & Cross, R. (2003). A Relational View of Information Seeking and Learning in Social Networks. Management Science, 49(4), 432–445.
Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G., & Freeman, L. C. (2002). Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.
Brower, H. H. (2003). On Emulating Classroom Discussion in a Distance-Delivered OBHR Course: Creating an On-Line Learning Community. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2(1), 22-36.
Carley, K. (1992). Orgabnizational Learning and Personnel Turnover. Organization Science, 3(1), 20-46.
Casciaro, T. (1998). Seeing things clearly: social structure, personality, and accuracy in social network perception. Social Networks, 20(4), 331-351. doi: 10.1016/S0378-8733(98)00008-2
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistics a power primer. Psychology Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
Cortina, J. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98-104.
Cross, R., Borgatti, S. P., & Parker, A. (2001). Beyond answers: dimensions of the advice network. Social Networks, 23(3), 215-235. doi: 10.1016/S0378-8733(01)00041-7
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Daradoumis, T., Martínez-Monés, A., & Xhafa, F. (2004). An Integrated Approach for Analysing and Assessing the Performance of Virtual Learning Groups Groupware: Design, Implementation and Use (Vol. 3198, pp. 289-304): Springer Berlin / Heidelberg.
de Laat, M., & Lally, V. (2003). Complexity, theory and praxis: Researching collaborative learning and tutoring processes in a networked learning community. Instructional Science, 31(1-2), 7-39.
de Laat, M., Lally, V., Lipponen, L., & Simons, R.-J. (2007). Investigating patterns of interaction in networked learning and computer-supported collaborative learing: A role for Social Network Analysis. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 2, 87-103.
de Laat, M., Lally, V., Simons, R.-J., & Wenger, E. (2006). A selective analysis of empirical findings in networked learning research in higher education: Questing for coherence. Educational Research Review, 1(2), 99-111.
Dochy, F., & McDowell, L. (1997). Assessment as a tool for learning. Studies In Educational Evaluation, 23(4), 279-298.
Dochy, F., Segers, M., & Buehl, M. M. (1999). The relation between assessment practices and outcomes of studies: The case of research on prior knowledge. Review of Educational Research, 69(2), 145-186. doi: 10.3102/00346543069002145
Drazin, R. (1990). Professionals and Innovation - Structural Functional Versus Radical Structural Perspectives. Journal of Management Studies, 27(3), 245-263. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.1990.tb00246.x
Edmondson, A. C. (2002). The Local and Variegated Nature of Learning in Organizations: A Group-Level Perspective. Organization Science, 13(2), 128-146. doi: 10.1287/orsc.13.2.128.530
Erdös, P., & Rényi, A. (1960). On the evolution of random graphs. Publications of the Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 5, 17-61.
Fox, S. (2000). Communities of Practice, Focault and Actor-Network Theory. Journal of Management Studies, 37(6), 853-867.
Garavan, T. N., Carbery, R., O'Malley, G., & O'Donnell, D. (2010). Understanding participation in e-learning in organizations: a large-scale empirical study of employees. International Journal of Training and Development, 14(3), 155-168. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2419.2010.00349.x
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2010). The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. Internet and Higher Education, 13(1-2), 5-9. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003
Garton, L., Haythornthwaite, C., & Wellman, B. (2006). Studying Online Social Networks. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(1), 0-0. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00062.x
Goldstein, H. (1995). Multilevel statistical models. Sydney: Edward Arnold.
Griffith, T. L., & Neale, M. A. (2001). Information processing in traditional, hybrid, and virtual teams: From nascent knowledge to transactive memory. Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol 23, 23, 379-421. doi: 10.1016/S0191-3085(01)23009-3
Hakkarainen, K., Palonen, T., Paavola, S., & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Communities of networked expertise: Professional and educational perspectives. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Hanneman, R. A., & Riddle, M. (2005). Introduction to Social Network Methods. Riverside, CA: University of California.
Hatala, J. P. (2006). Social Network Analysis in Human Resource Development: A New Methodology. Human Resource Development Review, 5(1), 45-71. doi: 10.1177/1534484305284318
Haythornthwaite, C. (2001). Exploring multiplexity: Social network structures in a computer-supported distance learning class. Information Society, 17(3), 211-226.
Holmqvist, M. (2009). Complicating the Organization: A New Prescription for the Learning Organization? Management Learning, 40(3), 275-287. doi: 10.1177/1350507609104340
Ibarra, H., & Andrews, S. B. (1993). Power, Social-Influence, and Sense Making - Effects of Network Centrality and Proximity on Employee Perceptions. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(2), 277-303. doi: 10.2307/2393414
Im, Y., & Lee, O. (2004). Pedagogical implications of online discussion for preservice teacher training. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(2), 155-170.
Jehn, K. A., & Bezrukova, K. (2004). A field study of group diversity, workgroup context, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 703-729.
Johnson-Cramer, M. E., Parise, S., & Cross, R. L. (2007). Managing change through networks and values. California Management Review, 49(3), 85-109.
Joinson, A. N. (2001). Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 177-192. doi: 10.1002/Ejsp.36
Kozlowski, S. W. J., Chao, G. T., & Jensen, J. M. (2009). Building an Infrastructure for Organizational Learning: A Multilevel Approach. In E. Salas & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Learning, Training, and Development in Organizations. New York, NY, United States of America: Routledge.
Krackhardt, D. (1990). Assessing the Political Landscape - Structure, Cognition, and Power in Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(2), 342-369. doi: 10.2307/2393394
Magurran, A. E. (1988). Ecological diversity and its measurement. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.
Nembhard, I. M., & Edmondson, A. C. (2006). Making it safe: The effects of leader inclusiveness and professional status on psychological safety and improvement efforts in health care teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(7), 941-966. doi: 10.1002/Job.413
Paavola, S., Lipponen, L., & Hakkarainen, K. (2004). Models of innovative knowledge communities and three metaphors of learning. Review of Educational Research, 74(4), 557-576. doi: 10.3102/00346543074004557
Paloff, R., & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: A profile and guide to working with online learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Panzarasa, P., Opsahl, T., & Carley, K. M. (2009). Patterns and Dynamics of Users' Behavior and Interaction: Network Analysis of an Online Community. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(5), 911-932. doi: 10.1002/Asi.21015
Pearce, W. B. (1976). The Coordinated Management of Meaning: A Rules-Based Theory of Interpersonal Communication. In G. R. Miller (Ed.), Explorations in Interpersonal Communication (pp. 17-35). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Pelled, L. H., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Xin, K. R. (1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict, and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 1-28. doi: 10.2307/2667029
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Giesbers, B., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2012). A dynamic analysis of social interaction in Computer Mediated Communication: A preference for autonomous learning. Interactive Learning Environments.
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W., & Segers, M. (2009). The role of academic motivation in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(6), 1195-1206. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.05.012
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Waterval, D., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2006). Remedial Online Teaching on a Summer Course. Industry and Higher Education, 20(5), 327-336.
Romme, A. G. L. (1996). A note on the hierarchy-team debate. Strategic Management Journal, 17(5), 411-417.
Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Snyder, P., & Lawson, S. (1993). Evaluating Results Using Corrected and Uncorrected Effect Size Estimates. Journal of Experimental Education, 61(4), 334-349.
Sparrowe, R. T., Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 316-325. doi: 10.2307/3069458
Sutton, R., Neale, M. A., & Owens, D. (2000). Technologies of Status Negotiation: Status Dynamics in Email Discussion Groups: Stanford University, Graduate School of Business.
van der Krogt, F. J. (1998). Learning network theory: The tension between learning systems and work systems in organizations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9(2), 157-177. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.3920090207
Venkatraman, N. (1994). IT-Enabled Business Transformation: From Automation to Business Scope Redefinition. Sloan Management Review, 35(2), 73-87.
Wellman, B. (2001). Computer Networks as Social Networks. Computers and Science, 293(5537), 2031-2034. doi: 10.1126/science.1065547
Yamnill, S., & McLean, G. N. (2001). Theories supporting transfer of training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(2), 195. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.7
Yang, C.-C., Tsai, I., Kim, B., Cho, M.-H., & Laffey, J. M. (2006). Exploring the relationships between students' academic motivation and social ability in online learning environments. The Internet and Higher Education, 9(4), 277-286.
Yates, J., & Orlikowski, W. J. (1992). Genres of Organizational Communication - a Structurational Approach to Studying Communication and Media. Academy of Management Review, 17(2), 299-326. doi: 10.2307/258774
Zack, M. H., & Mckenney, J. L. (1995). Social-Context and Interaction in Ongoing Computer-Supported Management Groups. Organization Science, 6(4), 394-422. doi: 10.1287/Orsc.6.4.394
Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2), 1-17.
Argote, L., & Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge transfer: A basis for competitive advantage in firms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82(1), 150-169. doi: 10.1006/obhd.2000.2893
Aviv, R., Erlich, Z., Ravid, G., & Geva, A. (2003). Network Analysis of Knowledge Construction in Asynchronous Learning Networks. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(3), pp. 1-23.
Barabási, A.-L. (2003). Linked : How Everything Is Connected to Everything Else and What It Means for Business, Science, and Everyday Life. from http://quijote.biblio.iteso.mx/dc/ver.aspx?ns=000149871
Barabasi, A. L., & Albert, R. (1999). Emergence of scaling in random networks. Science, 286(5439), 509-512.
Berge, Z. L. (1995). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendations from the field. Educational Technology, 15(1), 22-30.
Bird, A. (1994). Careers as Repositories of Knowledge - a New Perspective on Boundaryless Careers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(4), 325-344. doi: 10.1002/job.4030150404
Borgatti, S. P. (2002). NetDraw: Graph visualization software. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.
Borgatti, S. P., & Cross, R. (2003). A Relational View of Information Seeking and Learning in Social Networks. Management Science, 49(4), 432–445.
Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G., & Freeman, L. C. (2002). Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.
Brower, H. H. (2003). On Emulating Classroom Discussion in a Distance-Delivered OBHR Course: Creating an On-Line Learning Community. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2(1), 22-36.
Carley, K. (1992). Orgabnizational Learning and Personnel Turnover. Organization Science, 3(1), 20-46.
Casciaro, T. (1998). Seeing things clearly: social structure, personality, and accuracy in social network perception. Social Networks, 20(4), 331-351. doi: 10.1016/S0378-8733(98)00008-2
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistics a power primer. Psychology Bulletin, 112, 155–159.
Cortina, J. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98-104.
Cross, R., Borgatti, S. P., & Parker, A. (2001). Beyond answers: dimensions of the advice network. Social Networks, 23(3), 215-235. doi: 10.1016/S0378-8733(01)00041-7
Cross, R., Laseter, T., Parker, A., & Velasquez, G. (2004). Assessing and Improving Communities of Practice with Organizational Network Analysis. Paper presented at the The Network Roundtable at the University of Virginia, Virginia.
Cross, R., Laseter, T., Parker, A., & Velasquez, G. (2006). Using social network analysis to improve communities of practice. California Management Review, 49(1), 32-60.
Daradoumis, T., Martínez-Monés, A., & Xhafa, F. (2004). An Integrated Approach for Analysing and Assessing the Performance of Virtual Learning Groups Groupware: Design, Implementation and Use (Vol. 3198, pp. 289-304): Springer Berlin / Heidelberg.
de Laat, M., & Lally, V. (2003). Complexity, theory and praxis: Researching collaborative learning and tutoring processes in a networked learning community. Instructional Science, 31(1-2), 7-39.
de Laat, M., Lally, V., Lipponen, L., & Simons, R.-J. (2007). Investigating patterns of interaction in networked learning and computer-supported collaborative learing: A role for Social Network Analysis. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 2, 87-103.
de Laat, M., Lally, V., Simons, R.-J., & Wenger, E. (2006). A selective analysis of empirical findings in networked learning research in higher education: Questing for coherence. Educational Research Review, 1(2), 99-111.
Dochy, F., & McDowell, L. (1997). Assessment as a tool for learning. Studies In Educational Evaluation, 23(4), 279-298.
Dochy, F., Segers, M., & Buehl, M. M. (1999). The relation between assessment practices and outcomes of studies: The case of research on prior knowledge. Review of Educational Research, 69(2), 145-186. doi: 10.3102/00346543069002145
Drazin, R. (1990). Professionals and Innovation - Structural Functional Versus Radical Structural Perspectives. Journal of Management Studies, 27(3), 245-263. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.1990.tb00246.x
Edmondson, A. C. (2002). The Local and Variegated Nature of Learning in Organizations: A Group-Level Perspective. Organization Science, 13(2), 128-146. doi: 10.1287/orsc.13.2.128.530
Erdös, P., & Rényi, A. (1960). On the evolution of random graphs. Publications of the Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 5, 17-61.
Fox, S. (2000). Communities of Practice, Focault and Actor-Network Theory. Journal of Management Studies, 37(6), 853-867.
Garavan, T. N., Carbery, R., O'Malley, G., & O'Donnell, D. (2010). Understanding participation in e-learning in organizations: a large-scale empirical study of employees. International Journal of Training and Development, 14(3), 155-168. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2419.2010.00349.x
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2010). The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. Internet and Higher Education, 13(1-2), 5-9. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003
Garton, L., Haythornthwaite, C., & Wellman, B. (2006). Studying Online Social Networks. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(1), 0-0. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00062.x
Goldstein, H. (1995). Multilevel statistical models. Sydney: Edward Arnold.
Griffith, T. L., & Neale, M. A. (2001). Information processing in traditional, hybrid, and virtual teams: From nascent knowledge to transactive memory. Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol 23, 23, 379-421. doi: 10.1016/S0191-3085(01)23009-3
Hakkarainen, K., Palonen, T., Paavola, S., & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Communities of networked expertise: Professional and educational perspectives. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Hanneman, R. A., & Riddle, M. (2005). Introduction to Social Network Methods. Riverside, CA: University of California.
Hatala, J. P. (2006). Social Network Analysis in Human Resource Development: A New Methodology. Human Resource Development Review, 5(1), 45-71. doi: 10.1177/1534484305284318
Haythornthwaite, C. (2001). Exploring multiplexity: Social network structures in a computer-supported distance learning class. Information Society, 17(3), 211-226.
Holmqvist, M. (2009). Complicating the Organization: A New Prescription for the Learning Organization? Management Learning, 40(3), 275-287. doi: 10.1177/1350507609104340
Ibarra, H., & Andrews, S. B. (1993). Power, Social-Influence, and Sense Making - Effects of Network Centrality and Proximity on Employee Perceptions. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(2), 277-303. doi: 10.2307/2393414
Im, Y., & Lee, O. (2004). Pedagogical implications of online discussion for preservice teacher training. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(2), 155-170.
Jehn, K. A., & Bezrukova, K. (2004). A field study of group diversity, workgroup context, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 703-729.
Johnson-Cramer, M. E., Parise, S., & Cross, R. L. (2007). Managing change through networks and values. California Management Review, 49(3), 85-109.
Joinson, A. N. (2001). Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(2), 177-192. doi: 10.1002/Ejsp.36
Kozlowski, S. W. J., Chao, G. T., & Jensen, J. M. (2009). Building an Infrastructure for Organizational Learning: A Multilevel Approach. In E. Salas & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Learning, Training, and Development in Organizations. New York, NY, United States of America: Routledge.
Krackhardt, D. (1990). Assessing the Political Landscape - Structure, Cognition, and Power in Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(2), 342-369. doi: 10.2307/2393394
Magurran, A. E. (1988). Ecological diversity and its measurement. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.
Nembhard, I. M., & Edmondson, A. C. (2006). Making it safe: The effects of leader inclusiveness and professional status on psychological safety and improvement efforts in health care teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(7), 941-966. doi: 10.1002/Job.413
Paavola, S., Lipponen, L., & Hakkarainen, K. (2004). Models of innovative knowledge communities and three metaphors of learning. Review of Educational Research, 74(4), 557-576. doi: 10.3102/00346543074004557
Paloff, R., & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: A profile and guide to working with online learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Panzarasa, P., Opsahl, T., & Carley, K. M. (2009). Patterns and Dynamics of Users' Behavior and Interaction: Network Analysis of an Online Community. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(5), 911-932. doi: 10.1002/Asi.21015
Pearce, W. B. (1976). The Coordinated Management of Meaning: A Rules-Based Theory of Interpersonal Communication. In G. R. Miller (Ed.), Explorations in Interpersonal Communication (pp. 17-35). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Pelled, L. H., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Xin, K. R. (1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict, and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(1), 1-28. doi: 10.2307/2667029
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Giesbers, B., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2012). A dynamic analysis of social interaction in Computer Mediated Communication: A preference for autonomous learning. Interactive Learning Environments.
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W., & Segers, M. (2009). The role of academic motivation in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(6), 1195-1206. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.05.012
Rienties, B., Tempelaar, D., Waterval, D., Rehm, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2006). Remedial Online Teaching on a Summer Course. Industry and Higher Education, 20(5), 327-336.
Romme, A. G. L. (1996). A note on the hierarchy-team debate. Strategic Management Journal, 17(5), 411-417.
Rosenthal, R. (1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Snyder, P., & Lawson, S. (1993). Evaluating Results Using Corrected and Uncorrected Effect Size Estimates. Journal of Experimental Education, 61(4), 334-349.
Sparrowe, R. T., Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 316-325. doi: 10.2307/3069458
Sutton, R., Neale, M. A., & Owens, D. (2000). Technologies of Status Negotiation: Status Dynamics in Email Discussion Groups: Stanford University, Graduate School of Business.
van der Krogt, F. J. (1998). Learning network theory: The tension between learning systems and work systems in organizations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9(2), 157-177. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.3920090207
Venkatraman, N. (1994). IT-Enabled Business Transformation: From Automation to Business Scope Redefinition. Sloan Management Review, 35(2), 73-87.
Wellman, B. (2001). Computer Networks as Social Networks. Computers and Science, 293(5537), 2031-2034. doi: 10.1126/science.1065547
Yamnill, S., & McLean, G. N. (2001). Theories supporting transfer of training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(2), 195. doi: 10.1002/hrdq.7
Yang, C.-C., Tsai, I., Kim, B., Cho, M.-H., & Laffey, J. M. (2006). Exploring the relationships between students' academic motivation and social ability in online learning environments. The Internet and Higher Education, 9(4), 277-286.
Yates, J., & Orlikowski, W. J. (1992). Genres of Organizational Communication - a Structurational Approach to Studying Communication and Media. Academy of Management Review, 17(2), 299-326. doi: 10.2307/258774
Zack, M. H., & Mckenney, J. L. (1995). Social-Context and Interaction in Ongoing Computer-Supported Management Groups. Organization Science, 6(4), 394-422. doi: 10.1287/Orsc.6.4.394