Dynamics of Team Reflexivity after Feedback
Main Article Content
Abstract
A great deal of work has been generated on feedback in teams and has shown that giving performance feedback to teams is not sufficient to improve performance. To achieve the potential of feedback, it its stated that teams need to proactively process this feedback and thus collectively evaluate their performance and strategies, look for alternatives, and make clear decisions about ways to tackle their task. This concept of team reflexivity has been commonly described as a sequence of behaviours, which relative importance has not been demonstrated. Further, empirical research investigating the dynamic aspects of reflexivity has been scarce. This study sought to explore how reflexivity evolves over time and at which moments of the team interaction it is related to team performance. Thirty-two student dyads participated to a cognitively complex task (flight simulation) over four performance episodes comprising action phases followed by transition (feedback) phases. High interdependence between participants (pilots and co-pilots) was ensured through the distribution of complementary knowledge in the dyads. The results showed that teams seldom engaged in full cycles of reflective behaviours. When looking into individual behaviours, teams exhibited more reflective behaviours during action over time, while their reflective behaviours during feedback did not change, demonstrating a suboptimal feedback processing as time goes by. Additionally, it was demonstrated that teams were capable to learn from their past and act upon feedback to better subsequent team performance but also that initial performance acts as a trigger to future reflective behaviours.
Article Details
How to Cite
Gabelica, C., Van den Bossche, P., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2014). Dynamics of Team Reflexivity after Feedback. Frontline Learning Research, 2(3), 64–91. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v2i2.79
Section
Articles
FLR adopts the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs Creative Common License (BY-NC-ND). That is, Copyright for articles published in this journal is retained by the authors with, however, first publication rights granted to the journal. By virtue of their appearance in this open access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial settings.
References
Anseel, F., Lievens, F., & Schollaert, E. (2009). Reflection as a strategy to enhance task performance after feedback. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 110, 23-35. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.05.003
Adcroft, A. (2011). The mythology of feedback. Higher Education Research and Development 30(4), 405-419. doi:10.1080/07294360.2010.526096
Argote, L. (1989). To centralize or not to centralize: the effects of uncertainty and threat on group structure and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43, 58–74. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Arvaja, M., Häkkinen, P., Eteläpelto, A., & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2000). Collaborative processes during report writing of a science learning project: The nature of discourse as a function of task requirements. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15(4), 455-466. doi:10.1007/BF03172987
Austin, J., Kessler, M. L., Riccobono, J. E., & Bailey, J. S. (1996). Using feedback and reinforcement to improve the performance and safety of a roofing crew. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 16(2), 49-75. doi:10.1300/J075v16n02_04
Ballard, D. I., Tschan, F., & Waller, M. J. (2008). All in the timing: Considering time at multiple stages of group research. Small Group Research, 39, 328–351. doi:10.1177/1046496408317036
Balijepally, V., Mahapatra, R., Nerur, S., & Price, K. H. (2009). Are two Heads better than one for Software Development? The Productivity Paradox of Pair Programming. MIS Quarterly, 33(1), 91-118.
Barron, B. (2000). Achieving coordination in collaborative problem-solving groups. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9, 403–436. doi:10.1207/S15327809JLS0904_2
Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Promoting reflection in learning: A model. In D. Boud, R. Keogh, & D. Walker (Eds.), Reflection: Turning experience into learning (pp. 18-40). London: Kogan Page.
Boud, D., & E. Molloy. (2013). Rethinking Models of Feedback for Learning: The Challenge of Design. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6), 698-712. doi:10.1080/02602938.2012.691462
Bowers, C. A., Salas, E., Prince, C., & Brannick, M. T. (1992). Games teams play: A methodology for investigating team coordination and performance. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 24, 503-506. doi:10.3758/BF03203594
Bronack, S., Riedl, R., & Tashner, J. (2006) Learning in the zone: A social constructivist framework for distance education in a 3D virtual world. Interactive Learning Environments, 14(3), 219-232. doi:10.1080/10494820600909157
Chan, C. K. K. (2012). Co-regulation of learning in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: a discussion, Metacognition and Learning, 7(1), 63-73. doi:10.1007/s11409-012-9086-z
Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analysis of verbal data: A practical guide. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6, 271-315. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0603_1
Decuyper, S., Dochy, F., & Van den Bossche, P. (2010). Grasping the dynamic complexity of team learning: An integrative model for effective team learning in organizations. Educational Research Review, 5, 111-133. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2010.02.002
De Wever, B., Schellens, T., Valcke, M., & Van Keer, H. (2006). Content analysis schemes to analyze transcripts of online asynchronous discussion groups: A review. Computers & Education, 46(1), 6–28. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Dewey, J. (1910/1997). How we think. Mineola, New York: Dover.
Dillenbourg, P. (1999). Collaborative Learning: Cognitive and Computational Approaches. Advances in Learning and Instruction Series. New York, NY: Elsevier Science, Inc.
Dillenbourg, P., Baker, M., Blaye, A, & O’Malley, C. (1996). The evolution of research on collaborative learning. In E. Spada & P. Reiman (Eds), Learning in Humans and Machine: Towards an interdisciplinary learning science (pp. 189-211). Oxford: Elsevier.
Dillenbourg, P., & Tchounikine, P. (2007). Flexibility in macro-scripts for computer-supported collaborative learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23(1), 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00191.x
Dochy, F., Gijbels, D., Raes, E., & Kyndt, E. (2014, forthcoming). Team learning: Research in education and professional contexts. In S. Billett, C. Harteis, and H. Gruber (eds.), International Handbook of Research in Professional Practice-based Learning. Springer.
Duijnhouwer, H., Prins, F. J., , Stokking, K. M. (2012). Feedback providing improvement strategies and reflection on feedback use: Effects on students’ writing motivation, process, and performance. Learning and Instruction, 22(4), 171-184. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.003
Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behaviour in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383. doi:10.2307/2666999
Edmondson, A. C, Bohmer, R. M, & Pisano, G. P. (2001). Disrupted Routines: Team Learning and New Technology Implementation in Hospitals. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 685-716. doi:10.2307/3094828
Edmondson, A. C., Dillon, J., & Roloff, K. S., (2007). Three perspectives on team learning outcome improvement, task mastery, and group process. The Academy of Management Annals, 1, 269-314. doi:10.1080/078559811
Entin, E. E., & Serfaty, D. (1999). Adaptive team coordination. Human Factors, 41(2), 312-325. doi:10.1518/001872099779591196
Eriksen, J., & Dyer, L. (2004). Right from the start: Exploring the effects of early team events on subsequent project team development and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 49, 438–471. doi:10.2307/4131442
Eva, K. W., Armson, H., Holmboe, E., Lockyer, J., Loney, E., Mann, K., et al. (2012). Factors influencing responsiveness to feedback: On the interplay between fear, confidence, and reasoning processes. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice, 17(1), 15–26. doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9290-7
Gabelica, C., Van den Bossche, P., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2012). Feedback, a Powerful Lever in teams: a Review. Educational Research Review, 7(2), 123-144. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Gan, M. J. S., & Hattie, J. (2014). Prompting secondary students’ use of criteria, feedback specificity and feedback levels during an investigative task. Instructional Science. doi:10.1007/s11251-014-9319-4.
Gersick, C. J. G. (1989). Marking time: Predictable transition in task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 274-309. doi:10.2307/256363
Gibbs, G., & Simpson, C. (2004). Conditions Under Which Assessment Supports Students’ Learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1, 3-31.
Goodman, J. S., Wood, R. E., & Hendrickx, M. (2004). Feedback specificity, exploration, and learning. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(2), 248-262. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.2.248
Gredler, M. E. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 571-82). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gurtner, A., Tschan, F., Semmer, N. K., & Nagele, C. (2007). Getting groups to develop good strategies: Effects of reflexivity interventions on team process, team performance, and shared mental models. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102, 127–142. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Hackman, J. R., & Wageman, R. (2005). A theory of team coaching. Academy of Management Review, 30, 269-287. doi:10.5465/AMR.2005.16387885
Hattie, J. (2013). Calibration and confidence: Where to next? Learning and Instruction, 24, 62-66. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. doi:10.3102/003465430298487
Hoegl, M., & Parboteeah, K. P. (2006). Team goal commitment in innovative projects. International Journal of Innovation Management, 10(3), 299–324. doi:10.1142/S136391960600151X.
Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. (2005). Teams in organizations: From I-P-O models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 517-543. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250
Jay, J. K., & Johnson, K. L. (2001). Capturing complexity: A typology of reflective practice for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 73-85. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Janssen, J., Kirschner, F., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Paas, F. (2010). Making the black box of collaborative learning transparent: Combining process-oriented and cognitive load approaches. Educational Psychology Review, 22,139-154. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9131-x
Järvelä, S., Volet, S., & Järvenoja, H. (2010). Research on motivation in collaborative learning: Moving beyond the cognitive-situative divide and combining individual and social processes. Educational Psychologist, 45, 15–27. doi:10.1080/00461520903433539
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1992). Key to effective cooperation. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz, & N. Miller (Eds.), Interaction in cooperative groups. The theoretical anatomy of group learning (pp. 174–199). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1993). What we know about cooperative learning at the college level. Cooperative Learning, 13(3), 17–18.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. E. (2000). Cooperative Learning Methods: A meta-analysis. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: Cooperative Learning Center. Retrieved from: http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl-methods.html.
Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (2003). Group potency and collective efficacy: Examining their predictive validity, level of analysis, and effects of performance feedback on future group performance. Group & Organization Management, 28, 366-391. doi:10.1177/1059601102250821
Kaplan, S., LaPort, K., & Waller, M. J. (2013). The role of positive affect in team effectiveness during crises. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(4), 427-580. doi:10.1002/job.1817
Kapur, M., Voiklis, J., & Kinzer, C. K. (2008). Sensitivities to early exchange in synchronous computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) groups. Computers & Education, 51(1), 54-66. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.04.007
Karau, S. J., & Kelly, J. R. (1992). The effects of time scarcity and time abundance on group performance quality and interaction process. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 542–571. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Killion, J., & Todnem, G. (1991). A process for personal theory building. Educational Leadership, 48(6), 14-16.
King, A. (2007). Scripting collaborative learning processes: A cognitive perspective. In F. Fischer, I. Kollar, H. Mandl, & J. M. Haake (Vol. Eds.), Computer-supported collaborative learning series: Vol. 6. Scripting computer-supported collaborative learning (pp. 13–37). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-36949-5.
King, A. (1991). Effects of training in strategic questioning on children’s problem-solving performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 307–317.
Kirschner, P. A. (2009). Epistemology or pedagogy, that is the question. In: S. Tobias & T.M. Duffy (eds.), Constructivist theory applied to instruction: Success or failure? (pp. 144-157). New York: Routledge.
Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2008). A cognitive load approach to collaborative learning: United brains for complex tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 31-42. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.008
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 254-284. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.73.1.87
Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7, 77–124. doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00030.x
Kramarski, B. (2004). Making sense of graphs: Does metacognitive instruction make a difference on students’ mathematical conceptions and alternative conceptions. Learning and Instruction, 14, 593-619. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Lajoie, S. P., & Lu, J. (2012). Supporting collaboration with technology: Does shared cognition lead to co-regulation in medicine. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 45-46. doi:10.1007/s11409-011-9077-5
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data, Biometrics, 33, 159-174.
Leicht, R. M., Hunter, S. T., Saluja, C., & Messner, J. I. (2010). Implementing observational research methods to study team performance in construction management. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 136(1), 76–86. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000080
Lewis, K., Belliveau, M., Herndon, B, & Keller, J. (2007). Group cognition, membership change, and performance: Investigating the benefits and detriments of collective knowledge. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103(2), 159-178. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
London, M. (2003). Job feedback: Giving, seeking, and using feedback for performance improvement (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
London, M., & Sessa, V. I. (2006). Group feedback for continuous learning. Human Ressource Development Review, 5(3), 1-27. doi:10.1177/1534484306290226
Marks, M. A., Mathieu, J. E., & Zaccaro, S. J. (2001). A temporally based framework and taxonomy of team processes. Academy of Management Review, 26,356–376. doi: 10.2307/259182
Mathieu, J. E., & Rapp, T. L. (2009). Laying the foundation for successful team performance trajectories: The role of team charters and performance strategies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 90 –103. doi:10.1037/a0013257
McCarthy, A., & Garavan, T. (2008). Team learning and metacognition: A neglected area of HRD research and practice. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10, 509-524. doi:10.1177/1523422308320496
McGrath, J. E. (1993). The JEMCO workshop: Description of a longitudinal study, Small Group Research, 24, 285–306. doi:10.1177/1046496493243002
Michinov, N., & Michinov, E. (2009). Investigating the relationship between transactive memory and performance in collaborative learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(1), 43–54. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.01.003
Moreland, R. L., & McMinn, J. G. (2010). Group reflexivity and performance. In S. R. Thye & E. Lawler (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 27, pp. 63-95). Bingley, UK: Emerald Press.
Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computer-based teaching. Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents? Cognition and Instruction, 19(2), 177-213. doi:10.1207/S1532690XCI1902_02
Mory, E. H. (2003). Feedback research revisited. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 745-783). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Morris, J., & Stew, G. (2007). Collaborative reflection: how far do 2:1 models of learning in the practice setting promote peer reflection, Reflective Practice, 8(3), 419-432. doi:10.1080/14623940701425220
Mulder, R. H., & Ellinger, A. D. (2013). Perceptions of quality of feedback in organizations: Characteristics, determinants, outcomes of feedback, and possibilities for improvement: Introduction to a special issue. European Journal of Training and Development, 37(1), 4-23. doi:10.1108/03090591311293266
Mulder, R. H. (2013). Exploring feedback incidents, their characteristics and the informal learning activities that emanate from them. European Journal of Training and Development, 37(1), 49-71.
Müller, A., Herbig, B. , & Petrovic, K. (2009). The explication of implicit team knowledge and its supporting effect on team processes and technical innovations. An action regulation perspective on team reflexivity. Small Group Research, 40, 28-51. doi:10.1177/1046496408326574
Mullins, D., Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2011). Are two heads always better than one? Differential effects of collaboration on students' computer-supported learning in mathematics. International Journal of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, 6(3), 421-443. doi:10.1007/s11412-011-9122-z
Noroozi, O., Weinberger, Biemans, H. J. A., Mulder, M., & Chizari, M. (2012). Argumentation-based computer supported collaborative learning (ABCSCL). A systematic review and synthesis of fifteen years of research. Educational Research Review, 7(2), 79–106. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.03.001
Okhuysen, G. A., & Eisenhardt, K. M. (2002). Integrating knowledge in groups: How simple formal interventions help. Organization Science, 13, 370-386. doi:10.1287/orsc.13.4.370.2947
Okhuysen, G., & Waller, M. J. (2002). Focusing on midpoint transitions: An analysis of boundary conditions. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 1056-1065. doi:10.2307/3069330
Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2010). Awareness of group performance in a CSCL environment: Effects of peer feedback and reflection. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 151-161. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., Kirschner, P. A., Erkens, G., & Jaspers, J. G. M. (2011). Group awareness of social and cognitive performance in a CSCL environment: Effects of a peer feedback and reflection tool. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1087-1102. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Prins, F. J., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2006). Feedback for general practitioners in training: quality, styles, and preferences. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 11, 289-303. doi:10.1007/s10459-005-3250-z
Prinsen, F. R., Terwel, J., Zijlstra, B. J. H., & Volman, M. M. L. (2013). The effects of guided elaboration in a CSCL programme on the learning outcomes of primary school students from Dutch and immigrant families. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19(1), 39–57. doi:10.1080/13803611.2012.744694
Reimann, P. (2007). Time is precious: Why process analysis is essential for CSCL (and can also help to bridge between experimental and descriptive methods). In C. Chinn, G. Erkens & S. Puntambekar (Eds.), Mice, minds, and society. Proceedings of the computer-supported collaborative learning conference (CSCL 2007) (pp. 598–607). New Brunswick, NJ: International Society of the Learning Sciences.
Rourke, L., & Anderson, T. (2004). Validity in quantitative content analysis. Education Technology Research and Development, 52(1), 5-18. doi:10.1007/BF02504769
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Methodological issues in the content analysis of computer conference transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 12, 8-22
Rulke, D. L., & Rau, D. (2000). Investigating the encoding process of transactive memory development in group training. Group & Organization Management, 25, 373-396.
Rummel, N., Mullins, D., & Spada, H. (2012). Scripted collaborative learning with the Cognitive Tutor Algebra. International Journal of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, 7(2), 307-339. doi:10.1007/s11412-012-9146-z
Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2005). Learning to Collaborate: An Instructional Approach to Promoting Collaborative Problem Solving in Computer-Mediated Settings. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14(2), 201-241. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1402_2
Rummel, N., Spada, H., & Hauser, S. (2009). Learning to collaborate from being scripted or from observing a model. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 4(1), 69-92. doi: 10.1007/s11412-008-9054-4
Salas, E. Dickinson, T. L., Converse, S. A., & Tannenbaum, S. I. (1992). Toward an understanding of team performance and training. In R. W. Swezey & E. Salas (Eds.), Teams: Their training and performance (pp. 3-29). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., & King, H. (2007). Managing teams managing crises: Principles of teamwork to improve patient safety in the emergency room and beyond. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 8(5), 381-394. doi:10.1080/14639220701317764
Salas, E., Stagl, K. C., & Burke, C. S. (2004). 25 years of team effectiveness in organizations: Research themes and emerging needs. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 47–91). New York: Wiley.
Savelsbergh, C., Heijden, B. I. J. M. van der, & Poell, R. F. (2009). The development and empirical validation of a multi-dimensional measurement instrument for team learning behaviors. Small Group Research, 40(5), 578-607. doi:10.1177/1046496409340055
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., & Koopman, P. L. (2007). Reflexivity in teams: A measure and correlates. Applied Psychology-An International Review, 56(2), 189-211. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00250.x
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman, P. L., & Wienk, J. A. (2003). Diversity and team outcomes: The moderating effects of outcome interdependence and group longevity and the mediating effect of reflexivity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 779-802. doi:10.1002/job.220
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman , P. L., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). The role of transformational leadership in enhancing team reflexivity. Human Relations, 61, 1593-1616. doi:10.1177/0018726708096639
Schippers, M. C., Homan, A. C., & van Knippenberg, D. (2013). To reflect or not to reflect: Prior team performance as a boundary condition of the effects of reflexivity on learning and final team performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(1), 6-23. doi:10.1002/job.1784
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic.
Scott-Young, C., & Samson, D. (2009). How team efficacy beliefs impact project performance: An empirical investigation of team potency in capital projects in the process industries. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 3, 6-28. doi:10.1.1.308.8306
Seibert, K. W. (1999). Reflection-in-action: Tools for cultivating on-the-job learning conditions. Organizational Dynamics, 27, 54-65. doi:10.1016/S0090-2616(99)90021-9
Soller, A., Monés, A. M., Jermann, P., & Mühlenbrock, M. (2005). From Mirroring to Guiding: A Review of State of the Art Technology for Supporting Collaborative Learning. International Journal on Artificial Intelligence in Education, 15(5), 261– 290. doi:10.1.1.26.2186
Sims, D. E., Salas, E., & Burke, C. S. (2005). Promoting effective team performance through training. In S. A. Wheelan (Ed.), The Handbook of Group Research and Practice (pp. 407-425). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78, 153-189. doi:10.3102/0034654307313795
Tschan, F., Semmer, N. K., Nägele, C., & Gurtner, A. (2000). Task adaptive behavior and performance in groups. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 3(4), 367–386. doi:10.1177/1368430200003004003
Tjosvold, D., Tang, M. M. L., & West, M. (2004). Reflexivity for team innovation in China: The contribution of goal interdependence. Group & Organization Management, 29(5), 540–559. doi:10.1177/1059601103254911
van Ginkel, W., Tindale, R. S., & van Knippenberg, D. (2009). Team reflexivity, development of shared task representations, and the use of distributed information in group decision making. Group Dynamics, 13, 265-280. doi:10.1037/a0016045
van Ginkel, W. P., & van Knippenberg, D. (2009). Knowledge about the distribution of information and group decision making: When and why does it work? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(2), 218-229. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.10.003
Van der Haar, S., Segers, M. R. S, & Jehn, K. A. (2013). Towards a contextualized model of team learning processes and outcomes. Educational Research Review, 10, 1-12. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2013.04.001
Van der Pol, J., Van den Berg, I., Admiraal, W. F., & Simons, P. R. J. (2008). The nature, reception, and use of online peer feedback in higher education. Computers & Education, 51, 1804-1817. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Veenman, M. V. J., & Elshout, J. J. (1999) Changes in the relation between cognitive and metacognitive skills during the acquisition of expertise. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14, 509-523. doi:10.1007/BF03172976
Veestraeten, M., Kyndt, E., & Dochy, F. (2014). Investigating Team Learning in a Military Context. Vocation and Learning, 7(1), 75-100. doi:10.1007/s12186-013-9107-3
Villado, A. J., & Arthur, W. Jr. (2013). The comparative effect of subjective and objective after-action reviews on team performance on a complex task. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 514-528. doi:10.1037/a0031510
Visschers-Pleijers, A. J. S. F., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., De Leng, B. A., Wolfhagen, H. A. P., & Van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2006). Analysis of verbal interactions in tutorial groups: A process study. Medical Education, 40, 129-137. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02368.x
Volet, S., Summers, M., & Thurman, J. (2009). High-level co-regulation in collaborative learning: how does it emerge and how is it sustained? Learning and Instruction, 19, 128–143. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Waller, M. J. (1999). The timing of adaptive group responses to nonroutine events. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 127–137. doi:10.2307/257088
Waller, M. J., Gupta, N., & Giambatista, R. C. (2004). Effects of adaptive behaviors and shared mental models on control crew performance. Management Science, 50, 1534–1544. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1040.0210
Weingart, L. R. (1992). Impact of group goals, task component complexity, effort, and planning on group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(5), 682–693. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.77.5.682
West, M. A. (Ed.) (1996). Handbook of work group psychology, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
West, M. A. (2000). Reflexivity, revolution and innovation in work teams. In M. M. Beyerlein, D.A. Johnson & S.T. Beyerlein (Eds), Product development teams, Vol. 5. (pp. 1-29). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
West, M. A., Garrod, S., & Carletta, J. (1997). Group decision-making and effectiveness: unexplored boundaries. In C.L. Cooper & S.E. Jackson (Eds.), Creating tomorrow’s organizations: A handbook for future research in organizational behavior (pp. 293- 316). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Williams, K. D. (2010). Dyads can be groups (and often are). Small Group Research, 41, 268-274. doi:10.1177/1046496409358619
Wills, K. V., & Clerkin, T. A. (2009). Incorporating reflective practice into team simulation projects for improved learning outcomes. Business Communication Quarterly, 72(2), 221 227. doi:10.1177/1080569909334559
Yang, M., & Carless, D. (2013). The feedback triangle and the enhancement of dialogic feedback processes. Teaching in Higher Education. 18(3), 285-297. doi:10.1080/13562517.2012.719154
Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. (2001) Media and group cohesion: Relative influences on social presence, task participation, and group consensus, MIS Quarterly, 25(3), 371-390. doi:10.2307/3250922
Yukawa, J. (2006). Co-reflection in online learning: Collaborative critical thinking as narrative. Journal of Computer-supported Collaborative Learning, 1, 203–228. doi:10.1007/s11412-006-8994-9
Adcroft, A. (2011). The mythology of feedback. Higher Education Research and Development 30(4), 405-419. doi:10.1080/07294360.2010.526096
Argote, L. (1989). To centralize or not to centralize: the effects of uncertainty and threat on group structure and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43, 58–74. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Arvaja, M., Häkkinen, P., Eteläpelto, A., & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2000). Collaborative processes during report writing of a science learning project: The nature of discourse as a function of task requirements. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15(4), 455-466. doi:10.1007/BF03172987
Austin, J., Kessler, M. L., Riccobono, J. E., & Bailey, J. S. (1996). Using feedback and reinforcement to improve the performance and safety of a roofing crew. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 16(2), 49-75. doi:10.1300/J075v16n02_04
Ballard, D. I., Tschan, F., & Waller, M. J. (2008). All in the timing: Considering time at multiple stages of group research. Small Group Research, 39, 328–351. doi:10.1177/1046496408317036
Balijepally, V., Mahapatra, R., Nerur, S., & Price, K. H. (2009). Are two Heads better than one for Software Development? The Productivity Paradox of Pair Programming. MIS Quarterly, 33(1), 91-118.
Barron, B. (2000). Achieving coordination in collaborative problem-solving groups. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9, 403–436. doi:10.1207/S15327809JLS0904_2
Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Promoting reflection in learning: A model. In D. Boud, R. Keogh, & D. Walker (Eds.), Reflection: Turning experience into learning (pp. 18-40). London: Kogan Page.
Boud, D., & E. Molloy. (2013). Rethinking Models of Feedback for Learning: The Challenge of Design. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6), 698-712. doi:10.1080/02602938.2012.691462
Bowers, C. A., Salas, E., Prince, C., & Brannick, M. T. (1992). Games teams play: A methodology for investigating team coordination and performance. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 24, 503-506. doi:10.3758/BF03203594
Bronack, S., Riedl, R., & Tashner, J. (2006) Learning in the zone: A social constructivist framework for distance education in a 3D virtual world. Interactive Learning Environments, 14(3), 219-232. doi:10.1080/10494820600909157
Chan, C. K. K. (2012). Co-regulation of learning in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: a discussion, Metacognition and Learning, 7(1), 63-73. doi:10.1007/s11409-012-9086-z
Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analysis of verbal data: A practical guide. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6, 271-315. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0603_1
Decuyper, S., Dochy, F., & Van den Bossche, P. (2010). Grasping the dynamic complexity of team learning: An integrative model for effective team learning in organizations. Educational Research Review, 5, 111-133. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2010.02.002
De Wever, B., Schellens, T., Valcke, M., & Van Keer, H. (2006). Content analysis schemes to analyze transcripts of online asynchronous discussion groups: A review. Computers & Education, 46(1), 6–28. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Dewey, J. (1910/1997). How we think. Mineola, New York: Dover.
Dillenbourg, P. (1999). Collaborative Learning: Cognitive and Computational Approaches. Advances in Learning and Instruction Series. New York, NY: Elsevier Science, Inc.
Dillenbourg, P., Baker, M., Blaye, A, & O’Malley, C. (1996). The evolution of research on collaborative learning. In E. Spada & P. Reiman (Eds), Learning in Humans and Machine: Towards an interdisciplinary learning science (pp. 189-211). Oxford: Elsevier.
Dillenbourg, P., & Tchounikine, P. (2007). Flexibility in macro-scripts for computer-supported collaborative learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23(1), 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2007.00191.x
Dochy, F., Gijbels, D., Raes, E., & Kyndt, E. (2014, forthcoming). Team learning: Research in education and professional contexts. In S. Billett, C. Harteis, and H. Gruber (eds.), International Handbook of Research in Professional Practice-based Learning. Springer.
Duijnhouwer, H., Prins, F. J., , Stokking, K. M. (2012). Feedback providing improvement strategies and reflection on feedback use: Effects on students’ writing motivation, process, and performance. Learning and Instruction, 22(4), 171-184. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.003
Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behaviour in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350–383. doi:10.2307/2666999
Edmondson, A. C, Bohmer, R. M, & Pisano, G. P. (2001). Disrupted Routines: Team Learning and New Technology Implementation in Hospitals. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 685-716. doi:10.2307/3094828
Edmondson, A. C., Dillon, J., & Roloff, K. S., (2007). Three perspectives on team learning outcome improvement, task mastery, and group process. The Academy of Management Annals, 1, 269-314. doi:10.1080/078559811
Entin, E. E., & Serfaty, D. (1999). Adaptive team coordination. Human Factors, 41(2), 312-325. doi:10.1518/001872099779591196
Eriksen, J., & Dyer, L. (2004). Right from the start: Exploring the effects of early team events on subsequent project team development and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 49, 438–471. doi:10.2307/4131442
Eva, K. W., Armson, H., Holmboe, E., Lockyer, J., Loney, E., Mann, K., et al. (2012). Factors influencing responsiveness to feedback: On the interplay between fear, confidence, and reasoning processes. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice, 17(1), 15–26. doi:10.1007/s10459-011-9290-7
Gabelica, C., Van den Bossche, P., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2012). Feedback, a Powerful Lever in teams: a Review. Educational Research Review, 7(2), 123-144. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Gan, M. J. S., & Hattie, J. (2014). Prompting secondary students’ use of criteria, feedback specificity and feedback levels during an investigative task. Instructional Science. doi:10.1007/s11251-014-9319-4.
Gersick, C. J. G. (1989). Marking time: Predictable transition in task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 274-309. doi:10.2307/256363
Gibbs, G., & Simpson, C. (2004). Conditions Under Which Assessment Supports Students’ Learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1, 3-31.
Goodman, J. S., Wood, R. E., & Hendrickx, M. (2004). Feedback specificity, exploration, and learning. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(2), 248-262. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.2.248
Gredler, M. E. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 571-82). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gurtner, A., Tschan, F., Semmer, N. K., & Nagele, C. (2007). Getting groups to develop good strategies: Effects of reflexivity interventions on team process, team performance, and shared mental models. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102, 127–142. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Hackman, J. R., & Wageman, R. (2005). A theory of team coaching. Academy of Management Review, 30, 269-287. doi:10.5465/AMR.2005.16387885
Hattie, J. (2013). Calibration and confidence: Where to next? Learning and Instruction, 24, 62-66. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. doi:10.3102/003465430298487
Hoegl, M., & Parboteeah, K. P. (2006). Team goal commitment in innovative projects. International Journal of Innovation Management, 10(3), 299–324. doi:10.1142/S136391960600151X.
Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. (2005). Teams in organizations: From I-P-O models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 517-543. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250
Jay, J. K., & Johnson, K. L. (2001). Capturing complexity: A typology of reflective practice for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 73-85. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Janssen, J., Kirschner, F., Erkens, G., Kirschner, P. A., & Paas, F. (2010). Making the black box of collaborative learning transparent: Combining process-oriented and cognitive load approaches. Educational Psychology Review, 22,139-154. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9131-x
Järvelä, S., Volet, S., & Järvenoja, H. (2010). Research on motivation in collaborative learning: Moving beyond the cognitive-situative divide and combining individual and social processes. Educational Psychologist, 45, 15–27. doi:10.1080/00461520903433539
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1992). Key to effective cooperation. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz, & N. Miller (Eds.), Interaction in cooperative groups. The theoretical anatomy of group learning (pp. 174–199). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1993). What we know about cooperative learning at the college level. Cooperative Learning, 13(3), 17–18.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. E. (2000). Cooperative Learning Methods: A meta-analysis. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: Cooperative Learning Center. Retrieved from: http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl-methods.html.
Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (2003). Group potency and collective efficacy: Examining their predictive validity, level of analysis, and effects of performance feedback on future group performance. Group & Organization Management, 28, 366-391. doi:10.1177/1059601102250821
Kaplan, S., LaPort, K., & Waller, M. J. (2013). The role of positive affect in team effectiveness during crises. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(4), 427-580. doi:10.1002/job.1817
Kapur, M., Voiklis, J., & Kinzer, C. K. (2008). Sensitivities to early exchange in synchronous computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) groups. Computers & Education, 51(1), 54-66. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.04.007
Karau, S. J., & Kelly, J. R. (1992). The effects of time scarcity and time abundance on group performance quality and interaction process. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 542–571. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Killion, J., & Todnem, G. (1991). A process for personal theory building. Educational Leadership, 48(6), 14-16.
King, A. (2007). Scripting collaborative learning processes: A cognitive perspective. In F. Fischer, I. Kollar, H. Mandl, & J. M. Haake (Vol. Eds.), Computer-supported collaborative learning series: Vol. 6. Scripting computer-supported collaborative learning (pp. 13–37). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-36949-5.
King, A. (1991). Effects of training in strategic questioning on children’s problem-solving performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 307–317.
Kirschner, P. A. (2009). Epistemology or pedagogy, that is the question. In: S. Tobias & T.M. Duffy (eds.), Constructivist theory applied to instruction: Success or failure? (pp. 144-157). New York: Routledge.
Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2008). A cognitive load approach to collaborative learning: United brains for complex tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 31-42. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.008
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 254-284. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.73.1.87
Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and teams. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7, 77–124. doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00030.x
Kramarski, B. (2004). Making sense of graphs: Does metacognitive instruction make a difference on students’ mathematical conceptions and alternative conceptions. Learning and Instruction, 14, 593-619. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Lajoie, S. P., & Lu, J. (2012). Supporting collaboration with technology: Does shared cognition lead to co-regulation in medicine. Metacognition and Learning, 7, 45-46. doi:10.1007/s11409-011-9077-5
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data, Biometrics, 33, 159-174.
Leicht, R. M., Hunter, S. T., Saluja, C., & Messner, J. I. (2010). Implementing observational research methods to study team performance in construction management. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 136(1), 76–86. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000080
Lewis, K., Belliveau, M., Herndon, B, & Keller, J. (2007). Group cognition, membership change, and performance: Investigating the benefits and detriments of collective knowledge. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103(2), 159-178. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
London, M. (2003). Job feedback: Giving, seeking, and using feedback for performance improvement (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
London, M., & Sessa, V. I. (2006). Group feedback for continuous learning. Human Ressource Development Review, 5(3), 1-27. doi:10.1177/1534484306290226
Marks, M. A., Mathieu, J. E., & Zaccaro, S. J. (2001). A temporally based framework and taxonomy of team processes. Academy of Management Review, 26,356–376. doi: 10.2307/259182
Mathieu, J. E., & Rapp, T. L. (2009). Laying the foundation for successful team performance trajectories: The role of team charters and performance strategies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 90 –103. doi:10.1037/a0013257
McCarthy, A., & Garavan, T. (2008). Team learning and metacognition: A neglected area of HRD research and practice. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10, 509-524. doi:10.1177/1523422308320496
McGrath, J. E. (1993). The JEMCO workshop: Description of a longitudinal study, Small Group Research, 24, 285–306. doi:10.1177/1046496493243002
Michinov, N., & Michinov, E. (2009). Investigating the relationship between transactive memory and performance in collaborative learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(1), 43–54. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.01.003
Moreland, R. L., & McMinn, J. G. (2010). Group reflexivity and performance. In S. R. Thye & E. Lawler (Eds.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 27, pp. 63-95). Bingley, UK: Emerald Press.
Moreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001). The case for social agency in computer-based teaching. Do students learn more deeply when they interact with animated pedagogical agents? Cognition and Instruction, 19(2), 177-213. doi:10.1207/S1532690XCI1902_02
Mory, E. H. (2003). Feedback research revisited. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 745-783). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Morris, J., & Stew, G. (2007). Collaborative reflection: how far do 2:1 models of learning in the practice setting promote peer reflection, Reflective Practice, 8(3), 419-432. doi:10.1080/14623940701425220
Mulder, R. H., & Ellinger, A. D. (2013). Perceptions of quality of feedback in organizations: Characteristics, determinants, outcomes of feedback, and possibilities for improvement: Introduction to a special issue. European Journal of Training and Development, 37(1), 4-23. doi:10.1108/03090591311293266
Mulder, R. H. (2013). Exploring feedback incidents, their characteristics and the informal learning activities that emanate from them. European Journal of Training and Development, 37(1), 49-71.
Müller, A., Herbig, B. , & Petrovic, K. (2009). The explication of implicit team knowledge and its supporting effect on team processes and technical innovations. An action regulation perspective on team reflexivity. Small Group Research, 40, 28-51. doi:10.1177/1046496408326574
Mullins, D., Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2011). Are two heads always better than one? Differential effects of collaboration on students' computer-supported learning in mathematics. International Journal of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, 6(3), 421-443. doi:10.1007/s11412-011-9122-z
Noroozi, O., Weinberger, Biemans, H. J. A., Mulder, M., & Chizari, M. (2012). Argumentation-based computer supported collaborative learning (ABCSCL). A systematic review and synthesis of fifteen years of research. Educational Research Review, 7(2), 79–106. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.03.001
Okhuysen, G. A., & Eisenhardt, K. M. (2002). Integrating knowledge in groups: How simple formal interventions help. Organization Science, 13, 370-386. doi:10.1287/orsc.13.4.370.2947
Okhuysen, G., & Waller, M. J. (2002). Focusing on midpoint transitions: An analysis of boundary conditions. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 1056-1065. doi:10.2307/3069330
Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2010). Awareness of group performance in a CSCL environment: Effects of peer feedback and reflection. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 151-161. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., Kirschner, P. A., Erkens, G., & Jaspers, J. G. M. (2011). Group awareness of social and cognitive performance in a CSCL environment: Effects of a peer feedback and reflection tool. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1087-1102. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Prins, F. J., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2006). Feedback for general practitioners in training: quality, styles, and preferences. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 11, 289-303. doi:10.1007/s10459-005-3250-z
Prinsen, F. R., Terwel, J., Zijlstra, B. J. H., & Volman, M. M. L. (2013). The effects of guided elaboration in a CSCL programme on the learning outcomes of primary school students from Dutch and immigrant families. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19(1), 39–57. doi:10.1080/13803611.2012.744694
Reimann, P. (2007). Time is precious: Why process analysis is essential for CSCL (and can also help to bridge between experimental and descriptive methods). In C. Chinn, G. Erkens & S. Puntambekar (Eds.), Mice, minds, and society. Proceedings of the computer-supported collaborative learning conference (CSCL 2007) (pp. 598–607). New Brunswick, NJ: International Society of the Learning Sciences.
Rourke, L., & Anderson, T. (2004). Validity in quantitative content analysis. Education Technology Research and Development, 52(1), 5-18. doi:10.1007/BF02504769
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Methodological issues in the content analysis of computer conference transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 12, 8-22
Rulke, D. L., & Rau, D. (2000). Investigating the encoding process of transactive memory development in group training. Group & Organization Management, 25, 373-396.
Rummel, N., Mullins, D., & Spada, H. (2012). Scripted collaborative learning with the Cognitive Tutor Algebra. International Journal of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, 7(2), 307-339. doi:10.1007/s11412-012-9146-z
Rummel, N., & Spada, H. (2005). Learning to Collaborate: An Instructional Approach to Promoting Collaborative Problem Solving in Computer-Mediated Settings. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14(2), 201-241. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1402_2
Rummel, N., Spada, H., & Hauser, S. (2009). Learning to collaborate from being scripted or from observing a model. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 4(1), 69-92. doi: 10.1007/s11412-008-9054-4
Salas, E. Dickinson, T. L., Converse, S. A., & Tannenbaum, S. I. (1992). Toward an understanding of team performance and training. In R. W. Swezey & E. Salas (Eds.), Teams: Their training and performance (pp. 3-29). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., & King, H. (2007). Managing teams managing crises: Principles of teamwork to improve patient safety in the emergency room and beyond. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 8(5), 381-394. doi:10.1080/14639220701317764
Salas, E., Stagl, K. C., & Burke, C. S. (2004). 25 years of team effectiveness in organizations: Research themes and emerging needs. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 47–91). New York: Wiley.
Savelsbergh, C., Heijden, B. I. J. M. van der, & Poell, R. F. (2009). The development and empirical validation of a multi-dimensional measurement instrument for team learning behaviors. Small Group Research, 40(5), 578-607. doi:10.1177/1046496409340055
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., & Koopman, P. L. (2007). Reflexivity in teams: A measure and correlates. Applied Psychology-An International Review, 56(2), 189-211. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00250.x
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman, P. L., & Wienk, J. A. (2003). Diversity and team outcomes: The moderating effects of outcome interdependence and group longevity and the mediating effect of reflexivity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 779-802. doi:10.1002/job.220
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman , P. L., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). The role of transformational leadership in enhancing team reflexivity. Human Relations, 61, 1593-1616. doi:10.1177/0018726708096639
Schippers, M. C., Homan, A. C., & van Knippenberg, D. (2013). To reflect or not to reflect: Prior team performance as a boundary condition of the effects of reflexivity on learning and final team performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(1), 6-23. doi:10.1002/job.1784
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic.
Scott-Young, C., & Samson, D. (2009). How team efficacy beliefs impact project performance: An empirical investigation of team potency in capital projects in the process industries. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 3, 6-28. doi:10.1.1.308.8306
Seibert, K. W. (1999). Reflection-in-action: Tools for cultivating on-the-job learning conditions. Organizational Dynamics, 27, 54-65. doi:10.1016/S0090-2616(99)90021-9
Soller, A., Monés, A. M., Jermann, P., & Mühlenbrock, M. (2005). From Mirroring to Guiding: A Review of State of the Art Technology for Supporting Collaborative Learning. International Journal on Artificial Intelligence in Education, 15(5), 261– 290. doi:10.1.1.26.2186
Sims, D. E., Salas, E., & Burke, C. S. (2005). Promoting effective team performance through training. In S. A. Wheelan (Ed.), The Handbook of Group Research and Practice (pp. 407-425). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78, 153-189. doi:10.3102/0034654307313795
Tschan, F., Semmer, N. K., Nägele, C., & Gurtner, A. (2000). Task adaptive behavior and performance in groups. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 3(4), 367–386. doi:10.1177/1368430200003004003
Tjosvold, D., Tang, M. M. L., & West, M. (2004). Reflexivity for team innovation in China: The contribution of goal interdependence. Group & Organization Management, 29(5), 540–559. doi:10.1177/1059601103254911
van Ginkel, W., Tindale, R. S., & van Knippenberg, D. (2009). Team reflexivity, development of shared task representations, and the use of distributed information in group decision making. Group Dynamics, 13, 265-280. doi:10.1037/a0016045
van Ginkel, W. P., & van Knippenberg, D. (2009). Knowledge about the distribution of information and group decision making: When and why does it work? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108(2), 218-229. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.10.003
Van der Haar, S., Segers, M. R. S, & Jehn, K. A. (2013). Towards a contextualized model of team learning processes and outcomes. Educational Research Review, 10, 1-12. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2013.04.001
Van der Pol, J., Van den Berg, I., Admiraal, W. F., & Simons, P. R. J. (2008). The nature, reception, and use of online peer feedback in higher education. Computers & Education, 51, 1804-1817. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Veenman, M. V. J., & Elshout, J. J. (1999) Changes in the relation between cognitive and metacognitive skills during the acquisition of expertise. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 14, 509-523. doi:10.1007/BF03172976
Veestraeten, M., Kyndt, E., & Dochy, F. (2014). Investigating Team Learning in a Military Context. Vocation and Learning, 7(1), 75-100. doi:10.1007/s12186-013-9107-3
Villado, A. J., & Arthur, W. Jr. (2013). The comparative effect of subjective and objective after-action reviews on team performance on a complex task. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 514-528. doi:10.1037/a0031510
Visschers-Pleijers, A. J. S. F., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., De Leng, B. A., Wolfhagen, H. A. P., & Van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2006). Analysis of verbal interactions in tutorial groups: A process study. Medical Education, 40, 129-137. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02368.x
Volet, S., Summers, M., & Thurman, J. (2009). High-level co-regulation in collaborative learning: how does it emerge and how is it sustained? Learning and Instruction, 19, 128–143. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.031
Waller, M. J. (1999). The timing of adaptive group responses to nonroutine events. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 127–137. doi:10.2307/257088
Waller, M. J., Gupta, N., & Giambatista, R. C. (2004). Effects of adaptive behaviors and shared mental models on control crew performance. Management Science, 50, 1534–1544. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1040.0210
Weingart, L. R. (1992). Impact of group goals, task component complexity, effort, and planning on group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(5), 682–693. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.77.5.682
West, M. A. (Ed.) (1996). Handbook of work group psychology, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
West, M. A. (2000). Reflexivity, revolution and innovation in work teams. In M. M. Beyerlein, D.A. Johnson & S.T. Beyerlein (Eds), Product development teams, Vol. 5. (pp. 1-29). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.
West, M. A., Garrod, S., & Carletta, J. (1997). Group decision-making and effectiveness: unexplored boundaries. In C.L. Cooper & S.E. Jackson (Eds.), Creating tomorrow’s organizations: A handbook for future research in organizational behavior (pp. 293- 316). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Williams, K. D. (2010). Dyads can be groups (and often are). Small Group Research, 41, 268-274. doi:10.1177/1046496409358619
Wills, K. V., & Clerkin, T. A. (2009). Incorporating reflective practice into team simulation projects for improved learning outcomes. Business Communication Quarterly, 72(2), 221 227. doi:10.1177/1080569909334559
Yang, M., & Carless, D. (2013). The feedback triangle and the enhancement of dialogic feedback processes. Teaching in Higher Education. 18(3), 285-297. doi:10.1080/13562517.2012.719154
Yoo, Y., & Alavi, M. (2001) Media and group cohesion: Relative influences on social presence, task participation, and group consensus, MIS Quarterly, 25(3), 371-390. doi:10.2307/3250922
Yukawa, J. (2006). Co-reflection in online learning: Collaborative critical thinking as narrative. Journal of Computer-supported Collaborative Learning, 1, 203–228. doi:10.1007/s11412-006-8994-9