Eye-Tracking in the Study of Visual Expertise: Methodology and Approaches in Medicine
Main Article Content
Abstract
Eye-tracking is the measurement of eye motions and point of gaze of a viewer. Advances in this technology have been essential to our understanding of many forms of visual learning, including the development of visual expertise. In recent years, these studies have been extended to the medical professions, where eye-tracking technology has helped us to understand acquired visual expertise, as well as the importance of visual training in various medical specialties. Medical decision-making involves a complex interplay between knowledge and sensory information, and the study of eye-movements can reveal the mechanisms involved in acquiring the visual component of these skills. Eye-tracking studies have even been extended to develop computational models of procedures for “expert” skill assessment, and to eliminate potential sources of error in image-based diagnostics. This review will examine the current eye-tracking frontier for the study of visual expertise, with specific application to medical professions.
Article Details
How to Cite
Fox, S. E., & Faulkner-Jones, B. E. (2017). Eye-Tracking in the Study of Visual Expertise: Methodology and Approaches in Medicine. Frontline Learning Research, 5(3), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v5i3.258
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References
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Vanderwert, R. E., Westerlund, A., Montoya, L., McCormick, S. A., Miguel, H. O., & Nelson, C. A. (2015). Looking to the eyes influences the processing of emotion on face-sensitive event-related potentials in 7-month-old infants. Dev Neurobiol, 75(10), 1154-1163. doi:10.1002/dneu.22204
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Ahmidi, N., Poddar, P., Jones, J. D., Vedula, S. S., Ishii, L., Hager, G. D., & Ishii, M. (2015). Automated objective surgical skill assessment in the operating room from unstructured tool motion in septoplasty. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg, 10(6), 981-991. doi:10.1007/s11548-015-1194-1
Bombari, D., Mora, B., Schaefer, S. C., Mast, F. W., & Lehr, H. A. (2012). What was I thinking? Eye-tracking experiments underscore the bias that architecture exerts on nuclear grading in prostate cancer. PLoS One, 7(5), e38023. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038023
Braun, J. (1994). Visual search among items of different salience: removal of visual attention mimics a lesion in extrastriate area V4. J Neurosci, 14(2), 554-567.
Browatzki, B., Bulthoff, H. H., & Chuang, L. L. (2014). A comparison of geometric- and regression-based mobile gaze-tracking. Front Hum Neurosci, 8, 200. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00200
Brown, P. J., Marquard, J. L., Amster, B., Romoser, M., Friderici, J., Goff, S., & Fisher, D. (2014). What do physicians read (and ignore) in electronic progress notes? Appl Clin Inform, 5(2), 430-444. doi:10.4338/ACI-2014-01-RA-0003
Brunye, T. T., Carney, P. A., Allison, K. H., Shapiro, L. G., Weaver, D. L., & Elmore, J. G. (2014). Eye movements as an index of pathologist visual expertise: a pilot study. PLoS One, 9(8), e103447. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103447
Bukach, C. M., Gauthier, I., & Tarr, M. J. (2006). Beyond faces and modularity: the power of an expertise framework. Trends Cogn Sci, 10(4), 159-166. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.004
Crane, H. D., & Steele, C. M. (1985). Generation-V dual-Purkinje-image eyetracker. Appl Opt, 24(4), 527.
Dodge, R., & Cline, T. S. (1901). The angle velociy of eye movements. Psychological Review, 8(2), 145-157. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0076100
Draschkow, D., Wolfe, J. M., & Vo, M. L. (2014). Seek and you shall remember: scene semantics interact with visual search to build better memories. J Vis, 14(8), 10. doi:10.1167/14.8.10
Drew, T., Evans, K., Vo, M. L., Jacobson, F. L., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). Informatics in radiology: what can you see in a single glance and how might this guide visual search in medical images? Radiographics, 33(1), 263-274. doi:10.1148/rg.331125023
Drew, T., Vo, M. L., Olwal, A., Jacobson, F., Seltzer, S. E., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). Scanners and drillers: characterizing expert visual search through volumetric images. J Vis, 13(10). doi:10.1167/13.10.3
Drew, T., Vo, M. L., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). The invisible gorilla strikes again: sustained inattentional blindness in expert observers. Psychol Sci, 24(9), 1848-1853. doi:10.1177/0956797613479386
Eckstein, M. P. (2011). Visual search: a retrospective. J Vis, 11(5). doi:10.1167/11.5.14
Evans, K. K., Birdwell, R. L., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). If you don't find it often, you often don't find it: why some cancers are missed in breast cancer screening. PLoS One, 8(5), e64366. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064366
Evans, K. K., Georgian-Smith, D., Tambouret, R., Birdwell, R. L., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). The gist of the abnormal: above-chance medical decision making in the blink of an eye. Psychon Bull Rev, 20(6), 1170-1175. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0459-3
Evans, K. K., Tambouret, R. H., Evered, A., Wilbur, D. C., & Wolfe, J. M. (2011). Prevalence of abnormalities influences cytologists' error rates in screening for cervical cancer. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 135(12), 1557-1560. doi:10.5858/arpa.2010-0739-OA
Fallon, M. A., Wilbur, D. C., & Prasad, M. (2010). Ovarian frozen section diagnosis: use of whole-slide imaging shows excellent correlation between virtual slide and original interpretations in a large series of cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 134(7), 1020-1023. doi:10.1043/2009-0320-OA.1
Fox, S. E., Law, C. C., & Faulkner-Jones, B. E. (2016). Quantitative gaze assessment of a dual ”side by side” viewer versus a single whole slide image viewer for pathology education. Journal of Pathology Informatics.
Gauthier, I., & Nelson, C. A. (2001). The development of face expertise. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 11(2), 219-224.
Holmqvist, K. (2011). Eye tracking : a comprehensive guide to methods and measures. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
Huette, S., Winter, B., Matlock, T., & Spivey, M. (2012). Processing motion implied in language: eye-movement differences during aspect comprehension. Cogn Process, 13 Suppl 1, S193-197. doi:10.1007/s10339-012-0476-6
Jeong, W. K., Schneider, J., Turney, S. G., Faulkner-Jones, B. E., Meyer, D., Westermann, R., . . . Pfister, H. (2010). Interactive histology of large-scale biomedical image stacks. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph, 16(6), 1386-1395. doi:10.1109/TVCG.2010.168
Johnson, J. S., Liu, L., Thomas, G., & Spencer, J. P. (2007). Calibration algorithm for eyetracking with unrestricted head movement. Behav Res Methods, 39(1), 123-132.
Krupinski, E., Chao, J., Hofmann-Wellenhof, R., Morrison, L., & Curiel-Lewandrowski. (2014). Understanding Visual Search Patterns of Dermatologists Assessing Pigmented Skin Lesions Before and After Online Training. J Digit Imaging, 27, 779-785. doi:10.1007/s10278-014-9712-1
Krupinski, E. A., Graham, A. R., & Weinstein, R. S. (2013). Characterizing the development of visual search expertise in pathology residents viewing whole slide images. Hum Pathol, 44(3), 357-364. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2012.05.024
Krupinski, E. A., Tillack, A. A., Richter, L., Henderson, J. T., Bhattacharyya, A. K., Scott, K. M., . . . Weinstein, R. S. (2006). Eye-movement study and human performance using telepathology virtual slides: implications for medical education and differences with experience. Hum Pathol, 37(12), 1543-1556. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2006.08.024
Kundel, H. L., Nodine, C. F., Krupinski, E. A., & Mello-Thoms, C. (2008). Using gaze-tracking data and mixture distribution analysis to support a holistic model for the detection of cancers on mammograms. Acad Radiol, 15(7), 881-886. doi:10.1016/j.acra.2008.01.023
Laurent, P. A., Hall, M. G., Anderson, B. A., & Yantis, S. (2015). Valuable Orientations Capture Attention. Vis cogn, 23(1-2), 133-146. doi:10.1080/13506285.2014.965242
Law, B., Atkins, M. S., Lomax, A. J., & Wilson, J. G. (2003). Eye trackers in a virtual laparoscopic training environment. Stud Health Technol Inform, 94, 184-186.
Mallett, S., Phillips, P., Fanshawe, T. R., Helbren, E., Boone, D., Gale, A., . . . Halligan, S. (2014). Tracking eye gaze during interpretation of endoluminal three-dimensional CT colonography: visual perception of experienced and inexperienced readers. Radiology, 273(3), 783-792. doi:10.1148/radiol.14132896
Merchant, J., Morrissette, R., & Porterfield, J. L. (1974). Remote measurement of eye direction allowing subject motion over one cubic foot of space. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 21(4), 309-317. doi:10.1109/TBME.1974.324318
Pascalis, O., Scott, L. S., Kelly, D. J., Shannon, R. W., Nicholson, E., Coleman, M., & Nelson, C. A. (2005). Plasticity of face processing in infancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 102(14), 5297-5300. doi:10.1073/pnas.0406627102
Phillips, P., Boone, D., Mallett, S., Taylor, S. A., Altman, D. G., Manning, D., . . . Halligan, S. (2013). Method for tracking eye gaze during interpretation of endoluminal 3D CT colonography: technical description and proposed metrics for analysis. Radiology, 267(3), 924-931. doi:10.1148/radiol.12120062
Rayner, K. (1978). Eye movements in reading and information processing. Psychol Bull, 85(3), 618-660.
Rossion, B., Collins, D., Goffaux, V., & Curran, T. (2007). Long-term expertise with artificial objects increases visual competition with early face categorization processes. J Cogn Neurosci, 19(3), 543-555. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.3.543
Sali, A. W., Anderson, B. A., & Yantis, S. (2014). The role of reward prediction in the control of attention. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform, 40(4), 1654-1664. doi:10.1037/a0037267
Stewart, J., 3rd, Miyazaki, K., Bevans-Wilkins, K., Ye, C., Kurtycz, D. F., & Selvaggi, S. M. (2007). Virtual microscopy for cytology proficiency testing: are we there yet? Cancer, 111(4), 203-209. doi:10.1002/cncr.22766
Tiersma, E. S., Peters, A. A., Mooij, H. A., & Fleuren, G. J. (2003). Visualising scanning patterns of pathologists in the grading of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. J Clin Pathol, 56(9), 677-680.
Tourassi, G., Voisin, S., Paquit, V., & Krupinski, E. (2013). Investigating the link between radiologists' gaze, diagnostic decision, and image content. J Am Med Inform Assoc, 20(6), 1067-1075. doi:10.1136/amiajnl-2012-001503
Tourassi, G. D., Mazurowski, M. A., Harrawood, B. P., & Krupinski, E. A. (2010). Exploring the potential of context-sensitive CADe in screening mammography. Med Phys, 37(11), 5728-5736. doi:10.1118/1.3501882
Vanderwert, R. E., Westerlund, A., Montoya, L., McCormick, S. A., Miguel, H. O., & Nelson, C. A. (2015). Looking to the eyes influences the processing of emotion on face-sensitive event-related potentials in 7-month-old infants. Dev Neurobiol, 75(10), 1154-1163. doi:10.1002/dneu.22204
Wagner, J. B., Hirsch, S. B., Vogel-Farley, V. K., Redcay, E., & Nelson, C. A. (2013). Eye-tracking, autonomic, and electrophysiological correlates of emotional face processing in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 43(1), 188-199. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1565-1
Ward, A., Rosen, D. M., Law, C. C., Rosen, S., & Faulkner-Jones, B. E. (2015). Oxalate nephropathy: a three-dimensional view. Kidney Int, 88(4), 919. doi:10.1038/ki.2015.31
Wen, G., Aizenman, A., Drew, T., Wolfe, J. M., Haygood, T. M., & Markey, M. K. (2016). Computational assessment of visual search strategies in volumetric medical images. J Med Imaging (Bellingham), 3(1), 015501. doi:10.1117/1.JMI.3.1.015501
Wolfe, J. M. (1994). Guided Search 2.0 A revised model of visual search. Psychon Bull Rev, 1(2), 202-238. doi:10.3758/BF03200774
Wolfe, J. M. (1995). The pertinence of research on visual search to radiologic practice. Acad Radiol, 2(1), 74-78.
Wolfe, J. M. (2012a). Saved by a log: how do humans perform hybrid visual and memory search? Psychol Sci, 23(7), 698-703. doi:10.1177/0956797612443968
Wolfe, J. M. (2012b). When do I quit? The search termination problem in visual search. Nebr Symp Motiv, 59, 183-208.
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