Learning from errors: A model of individual processes

Main Article Content

Maria Tulis
Gabriele Steuer
Markus Dresel

Abstract

Errors bear the potential to improve knowledge acquisition, provided that learners are able to deal with them in an adaptive and reflexive manner. However, learners experience a host of different—often impeding or maladaptive—emotional and motivational states in the face of academic errors. Research has made few attempts to develop a theory that focuses on learning from errors (with the exceptions of the theory of impasse-driven learning and the theory of negative knowledge) and, in particular, a theoretical framework that focuses on antecedent motivational processes. By integrating theories of self-regulated learning, volition, attributions, and appraisals, we propose a model that highlights individual processes that are characteristic of this specific learning phenomenon. More precisely, our theoretical framework aims to explain how emotional, motivational and self-regulatory processes—influenced by personal and contextual conditions—interact in order to facilitate or impede adaptive dealing with errors and appropriate metacognitions and cognitive activities. Our objective is to provide a framework that allows for the systematic integration of various aspects that have been targeted in previous research and to guide and stimulate future research on learning from errors. As a first evidence for validation, we summarise research findings that address specific parts of the proposed model.

Article Details

How to Cite
Tulis, M., Steuer, G., & Dresel, M. (2016). Learning from errors: A model of individual processes. Frontline Learning Research, 4(2), 12–26. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v4i2.168
Section
Articles
Author Biographies

Maria Tulis, University of Augsburg Universitätsstr. 10 86159 Augsburg, Germany

Department of Psychology

Gabriele Steuer, University of Augsburg

Department of Psychology

Markus Dresel, University of Augsburg

Department of Psychology

References

Ayers, M. S., & Reder, L. M. (1998). A theoretical review of the misinformation effect. Predictions from an activation-based memory model. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 1–21. doi:10.3758/BF03209454.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Bangert-Drowns, R. L.; Kulik, C.; Kulik, J. A. & Morgan, M. T. (1991). The instructional effect of feedback in test-like events. Review of Educational Research, 61, 213–238. doi:10.3102/00346543061002213.
Bauer, J., Gartmeier, M., & Harteis, C. (2012). Human fallibility and learning from errors at work. In J. Bauer & C. Harteis (Eds.), Human fallibility: The ambiguity of errors for work and learning (pp. 155–169). Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3941-5.
Boekaerts, M. (1993). Being concerned with well-being and with learning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 149–167. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_4.
Boekaerts, M. (1999). Self-regulated learning: Where we are today. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 445–457. doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00014-2.
Boekaerts, M. (2003). Towards a model that integrates motivation, affect, and learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph, Series II (2), Development and Motivation: Joint Perspectives, 173–189.
Boekaerts, M. (2006). Self-regulation and effort investment. In E. Sigel & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Child Psychology in Practice, 4 (pp. 345–377). New Jersey: Wiley.
Boekaerts M. (2010), Coping with stressful situations: An important aspect of self-regulation. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Education (pp. 570–575). Oxford: Elsevier.
Boekaerts, M., & Niemivirta, M. (2000). Self-regulation in learning: Finding a balance between learning goals and ego-protective goals. In M. Boekaerts, P.-R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 417–450). San Diego: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50042-1.
Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995). Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65, 245–281. doi:10.3102/00346543065003245.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19–35. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.19.
Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge: University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139174794.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2013). Goals and emotion. In M. D. Robinson, E. R. Watkins, & E. Harmon-Jones (Eds.), Guilford handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 176–194). New York: Guilford Press.
Chi, M. T. H. (1996). Constructing self-explanations and scaffolded explanations in tutoring. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 33–49. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199611)10:7%3C33::AID-ACP436%3E3.3.CO;2-5.
Clements, M. A. (1980). Analyzing children's errors on written mathematical tasks. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 11, 1–21. doi:10.1007/BF00369157.
Clifford, M. M. (1984). Thoughts on a theory of constructive failure. Educational Psychologist, 19, 108–120. doi:10.1080/00461528409529286.
Cyr, A.-A., & Anderson, N. D. (2015). Mistakes as Stepping Stones: Effects of Errors on Episodic Memory Among Younger and Older Adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. doi:10.1037/xlm0000073.
De Brabander, K., & Martens, R. (2014). Towards a unified theory of task-specific motivation. Educational Research Review, 11, 27–44. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2013.11.001.
De Leeuw, N., & Chi, M. T. H. (2003). Self-Explanation, enriching a situation model or repairing a domain model? In G. Sinatra & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Intentional Conceptual Change (pp. 55–78). Mahwah: New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Dresel, M., Schober, B., Ziegler, A., Grassinger, R., & Steuer, G. (2013). Affektiv-motivational adaptive und handlungsadaptive Reaktionen auf Fehler im Lernprozess [Affective-motivational adaptive and action adaptive reactions on errors in learning processes]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 27, 255–271. doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000111.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–132. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153.
Eichelmann, A., Narciss, S., & Schnaubert, L. (2013, August). Learning from errors through tasks-with-typical-errors. Paper presented at the 15th Biennial Conference of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI), Munich, Germany.
Elliott, E., & C. Dweck. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5–12. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.5.
Elliot, A. J., & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of competence and motivation. New York, NY: Guilford.
Engelschalk, T., Steuer, G. & Dresel, M. (2015). Wie spezifisch regulieren Studierende ihre Motivation bei unterschiedlichen Anlässen? Ergebnisse einer Interviewstudie [Situation-Specific Motivation Regulation: How Specifically Do Students Regulate Their Motivation for Different Situations?]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 47, 14–23. doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000120.
Fiori, C., & Zuccheri, L. (2005). An experimental research on error patterns in written subtraction. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 60, 323–331. doi:10.1007/s10649-005-7530-6.
Frese, M., & Zapf, D. (1994). Action as the core of work psychology: A German approach. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 271–340). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists.
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271.
Große, C. S., & Renkl, A. (2007). Finding and fixing errors in worked examples: Can this foster learning outcomes? Learning and Instruction, 17, 612–634. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.008.
Gully, S. M., Payne, S. C., Koles, K. L., & Whiteman, J.-A. K. (2002). The Impact of error training and individual differences on training outcomes: An attribute–treatment interaction perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 143–155. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.143.
Heimbeck, D., Frese, M., Sonnentag, S., & Keith, N. (2003). Integrating errors into the training process: The function of error management instructions and the role of goal orientation. Personnel Psychology, 56, 333–362. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00153.x.
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1989). Motivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 657–690. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.657.
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (1996). A self-regulatory skills perspective to reducing cognitive interference. In I. G. Sarason, B. R. Sarason & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Cognitive interference: Theories, methods, and findings (pp. 153–171). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26, 379–424. doi:10.1080/07370000802212669.
Keith, N., & Frese, M. (2005). Self-regulation in error management training: Emotion control and metacognition as mediators of performance effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 677–691. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677.
Knollmann, M. (2006). Kontextspezifische Emotionsregulationsstile. Entwicklung eines Fragebogens zur Emotionsregulation im Lernkontext Mathematik [Emotion regulation in learning contexts: Development of a questionnaire measuring emotion regulation during math learning]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 20, 113–123. doi:10.1024/1010-0652.20.12.113.
Kolodner, J. (1983). Towards an understanding of the role of experience in the evolution from novice to expert. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 19, 497–518. doi: 10.1016/S0020-7373(83)80068-6.
Kolodner, J. (1997). Educational implications of analogy: A view from case-based reasoning. American Psychologist, 52, 57–66. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.1.57.
Kuhl, J. (1985). Volitional mediators of cognitive-behavior-consistency; self-regulatory processes and action versus state orientation. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control. From cognition to behavior (pp. 101–128). Berlin: Springer.
Kuhl, J. (2000). The volitional basis of personality systems interaction theory: Applications in learning and treatment contexts. International Journal of Educational Research, 33, 665–703. doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(00)00045-8.
Künsting, J., Kempf, J., & Wirth, J. (2013). Enhancing scientific discovery learning through metacognitive support. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38, 349–360. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.07.001.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lazarus, R. S. (1993). Why we should think of stress as a subset of emotion? In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and empirical aspects (2nd ed., pp. 21–39). New York: The Free Press.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Maehr, M. L., & Zusho, A. (2009). Achievement goal theory: The past, present, and future. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 77–104). New York: Routledge.
Marsh, H. W., Walker, R., & Debus, R. (1991). Subject–specific components of academic self–concept and self–efficacy. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 16, 311–345. doi:10.1016/0361-476X(91)90013-B.
Mathan, S. A., & Koedinger, K. R. (2005). Fostering the intelligent novice: Learning from errors with metacognitive tutoring. Educational Psychologist, 40, 257–265. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4004_7.
Minsky, M. (1997). Negative expertise. In P. J. Feltovich, K. M. Ford, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in context (pp. 515–521). Menlo Park: AAAI Press/MIT Press.
Mory, E. H. (1996). Feedback Research. In: D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. A Project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 919–956. New York: Macmillan.
Oser, F., & Spychiger, M. (2005). Lernen ist schmerzhaft. Zur Theorie des Negativen Wissens und zur Praxis der Fehlerkultur [Learning is painful. On the theory of negative knowledge and the practice of error culture]. Weinheim, Germany: Beltz.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Daniels, L. M., Stupnisky, R. H., & Perry, R. P. (2010). Boredom in achievement settings: Control-value antecedents and performance outcomes of a neglected emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 531–549. doi:10.1037/a0019243.
Perry, N. E., & Winne, P. H. (2006). Learning from learning kits: gStudy traces of students’ self-regulated engagements with computerized content. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 211–228. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9014-3.
Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 452–502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Schunk, D. H., Meece, J. R., & Pintrich, P. R. (2013). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Reason, J. T. (1990). Human error. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139062367.
Reason, J. T. (1995). Understanding adverse events: human factors. Quality in Health Care, 4, 80–89. doi:10.1136/qshc.4.2.80.
Resnick, L. B. (1984). Beyond error analysis: The role of understanding in elementary school arithmetic. In H. N. Cheek (Ed.), Diagnostic and prescriptive mathematics: Issues, ideas, and insights (pp. 214). Kent, OH: Research Council for Diagnostic and Prescriptive Mathematics.
Rybowiak, V., Garst, H., Frese, M., & Batinic, B. (1999). Error orientation questionnaire (EOQ): Reliability, validity, and different language equivalence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 527–547. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199907)20:4%3C527::AID-JOB886%3E3.0.CO;2-G.
Schmitz, B. (2001). Self-Monitoring zur Unterstützung des Transfers einer Schulung in Selbstregulation für Studierende [Self-monitoring to support the transfer of a self-regulation instruction for students]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 15, 181–197. doi:10.1024//1010-0652.15.34.181.
Schwinger, M., Steinmayr, R., & Spinath, B. (2009). How do motivational regulation strategies affect achievement: Mediated by effort management and moderated by intelligence. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 621–627. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2009.08.006.
Siegler, R. S. (2002). Microgenetic studies of self-explanation. In N. Granott & J. Parziale (Eds.), Microdevelopment. Transition processes in development and learning (pp. 31–58). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489709.002.
Steuer, G., Rosentritt-Brunn, G., & Dresel, M. (2013). Dealing with errors in mathematics classrooms: Structure and relevance of perceived error climate. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38, 196–210. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.03.002.
Tulis, M. (2013). Error management behavior in classrooms: Teachers’ responses to students’ mistakes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 33, 56–68. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.02.003.
Tulis, M., & Ainley, M. (2011). Interest, enjoyment and pride after failure experiences? Predictors of students' state-emotions after success and failure during learning mathematics. Educational Psychology, 31, 779–807. doi:10.1080/01443410.2011.608524.
Tulis, M. & Dresel, M. (2013, August). Motivational and emotional self–regulation and adaptive learning activities after errors. Paper presented at the 15th Biennial Conference of the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI), Munich, Germany.
Tulis, M., & Fulmer, S. M. (2013). Students’ motivational and emotional experiences and their relationship to persistence during academic challenge in mathematics and reading. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 35–47. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.06.003.
Tulis, M., Grassinger, R., & Dresel, M. (2011). Adaptiver Umgang mit Fehlern als Aspekt der Lernmotivation und des Selbstregulierten Lernens von Overachievern [Adaptive handling of errors as an aspect of learning motivation and self-regulated learning of overachievers]. In M. Dresel & L. Lämmle (Eds.), Motivation, Selbstregulation und Leistungsexzellenz [Motivation, self-regulation and achievement excellence] (pp. 29–51). Münster, Germany: LIT.
Tulis, M., Steuer, G., & Dresel, M. (subm.). Components of adaptive individual dealing with errors during academic learning.
Van Dyck, C., van Hooft, E. A. J., de Gilder, T. C., & Liesveld, L. C. (2010). Proximal antecedents and correlates of adopted error approach: A self-regulatory perspective. Journal of Social Psychology, 150, 428–451. doi:10.1080/00224540903366743.
Van Lehn, K. (1988). Toward a theory of impasse-driven learning. In H. Mandl & A. Lesgold (Eds.), Learning issues for intelligent tutoring systems, 19-41. New York: Springer.
Van Lehn, K., Siler, S., Murray, C., Yamauchi, T., & Baggett, W. (2003). Why do only some events cause learning during human tutoring? Cognition and Instruction, 21, 209–249. doi:10.1207/S1532690XCI2103_01.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92, 548–573. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4948-1.
Westermann, K., & Rummel, N. (2012). Delaying instruction: evidence from a study in a university relearning setting. Instructional Science, 40, 673–689. doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9207-8.
Winne, P. H. & Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky & A. C. Graesser (Hrsg.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 279–306). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wolters, C. A. (1998). Self-regulated learning and college students' regulation of motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 224–235. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.224.
Wolters, C. A. (2003). Regulation of motivation. Evaluating an underemphasized as-pect of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 189–205. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3804_1.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 166–183. doi:10.3102/0002831207312909.
Zhao, B. (2011). Learning from errors: The role of context, emotion, and personality. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 435–463. doi:10.1002/job.696.
Zhao, B., & Olivera, F. (2006). Error reporting in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 31, 1012–1030. doi:10.5465/AMR.2006.22528167.