Relationships among motivation, commitment, cognitive capacities, and achievement in secondary education
Main Article Content
Abstract
The aims of the present study were (1) to identify to what extent school motivation and school commitment contributed to the explanation of students’ academic achievement in addition to the effect of students’ cognitive capacities, (2) to find out whether school commitment mediated the relation between school motivation and academic achievement, and (3) to find out whether school motivation mediated the relation between school commitment and academic achievement. New in the field is that perspectives from two different research traditions were adopted, resulting in a selection of variables introduced by identity development theory and by motivational theories on achievement goals. The overall goal was to provide insight in the underlying structure of the relationships among these variables by providing new empirical evidence derived from a large student sample. A sample of more than 6,000 secondary school students from the Netherlands was therefore used in the study. Path models (structural equation models) were used to analyse the data. Fit indices of the final model were satisfactory. This model included students’ cognitive capacities, three motivation factors (performance, social, and extrinsic motivation; mastery was excluded) and one commitment component (in-depth exploration; the ‘commitment’ and ‘reconsideration of commitment’ components were excluded). The results showed small effects of performance (+), social (+), and extrinsic (-) motivation on academic achievement in addition to students’ cognitive capacities. A very small negative effect was found for in-depth exploration. In-depth exploration mediated the motivation – achievement relationships to a limited extent. Suggestions for further research are discussed.
Article Details
How to Cite
Korpershoek, H. (2016). Relationships among motivation, commitment, cognitive capacities, and achievement in secondary education. Frontline Learning Research, 4(3), 28–43. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v4i3.182
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References
Ali, J., & McInerney, D. M. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of school motivation. Paper presented at the 3rd SELF Research Conference, Berlin, Germany.
Anderman, E. M. (2002). School effects on psychological outcomes during adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 795-809. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663.94.4.795
Anderman, L. H. (2003). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle school students’ sense of school belonging. Journal of Experimental Education, 72, 5-22. doi: 10.1080/00220970309600877
Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (1999). Social predictors of changes in students’ achievement goal orientations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 21-37. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1998.0978
Batenburg, Th. A. van, & Werf, M.P.C. van der. (2004). NSCCT: Niet Schoolse Cognitieve Capaciteiten Test. Voor groep 4, 6 en 8 in het basisonderwijs. Verantwoording, normering en handleiding. Groningen, the Netherlands: GION.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497
Bosma, H. A. (1985). Identity development in adolescence. Coping with commitments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Groningen, the Netherlands: University of Groningen.
Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 171-200. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.171
Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., & Meeus, W. (2008). Capturing the dynamics of identity formation in various ethnic groups. Development and validation of a three-dimensional model. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 207-222. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.09.002
Deci, E. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. doi: 10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination theory research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). Schools as developmental contexts during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 225-241. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00725.x
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2x2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501-519. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.80.3.501
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Faircloth, B. S. (2012). “Wearing a mask” vs. connecting identity with learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37, 186-194. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.12.003
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59-109. doi: 10.3102/00346543074001059
Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E. (1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. The Journal of Experimental Education, 62, 60-71. doi: 10.1080/00220973.1993.9943831
Hagborg, W. J. (1998). An investigation of a brief measure of school membership. Adolescence, 33, 461-468.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
Huang, C. (2012). Discriminant and criterion-related validity of achievement goals in predicting academic achievement: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 48-74. doi: 10.1037/a0026223
Hulleman, C. S., Schrager, S. M., Bodmann, S. M., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010). A meta-analytic review of achievement goal measures: Different labels for the same constructs or different constructs with similar labels? Psychological Bulletin, 136, 422-449. doi: 10.1037/a0018947
Klimstra, T.A., Hale, W.W., Raaijmakers, Q.A.W., Branje, S.J.T. & Meeus, W.H.J. (2010). Identity formation in adolescence: Change or stability? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 150-162. doi: 10.1007/s10964-009-9401-4
King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2012). Including social goals in achievement motivation research: Examples from the Philippines. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 5. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol5/iss3/4. doi: 10.9707/2307-0919.1104
King, R. B., Ganotice, F. A., & Watkins, D. A. (2014). A cross-cultural analysis of achievement and social goals among Chinese and Filipino students. Social Psychology of Education, 17, 439-455. Published Online First May 2014. doi: 10.1007/s11218-014-9251-0
King, R. B., McInerney, D. M., & Watkins, D. A. (2012). Competitiveness is not that bad…at least in the East: Testing the hierarchical model of achievement motivation in the Asian setting. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 446-457. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.10.003
Korpershoek, H., Kuyper, H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2015). Differences in students’ school motivation: A latent class modelling approach. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 137-163. doi:10.1007/s11218-014-9274-6
Korpershoek, H., Xu, J. K., Mok, M. M. C., McInerney, M. D., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2015). Testing the multidimensionality of the Inventory of School Motivation in a Dutch student sample. Journal of Applied Measurement, 16, 41-59.
Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E. (2010). Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 683-698. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.002
Lannegrand-Willems, L., & Bosma, H. (2006). Identity development-in-context: The school as an important context for identity development. Identity, 6, 85-113. doi: 10.1207/s1532706xid0601_6
Ma, X. (2003). Sense of belonging to school: Can schools make a difference? The Journal of Educational Research, 96, 340-349. doi: 10.1080/00220670309596617
Maehr, M. L. (1984). Meaning and motivation: Toward a theory of personal investment. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education, vol. 1 (pp. 115-144). New York: Academic Press.
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551-558. doi: 10.1037/h0023281
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159-187). New York: Wiley.
Marcia, J. E. (1994). The empirical study of ego identity. In H. A. Bosma, T. L. G. Graafsma, H. D. Grotevant, & D. J. de Levita (Eds.), Identity and development. An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 67-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
McInerney, D. M., & Ali, J. (2006). Multidimensional and hierarchical assessment of school motivation: Cross-cultural validation. Educational Psychology, 26, 595-612. doi: 10.1080/01443410500342559
McInerney, D. M., & Sinclair, K. E. (1991). Cross-cultural testing: Inventory of school motivation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 123-133. doi: 10.1177/0013164491511011
McInerney, D. M., & Sinclair, K. E. (1992). Dimensions of school motivation: A cross-cultural validation study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23, 389-406. doi: 10.1177/0022022192233009
McInerney, D. M., Dowson, M., & Yeung, A. S. (2005). Facilitating conditions for school motivation: Construct validity and applicability. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65, 1046-1066. doi: 10.1177/0013164405278561
McInerney, D. M., Marsh, H. W., & Yeung, A. S. (2003). Toward a hierarchical goal theory model of school motivation. Journal of Applied Measurement, 4, 335-357.
Meeus, W. (1996). Studies on identity development in adolescence: An overview of research and some new data. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 569-598. doi: 10.1007/bf01537355
Meeus, W. (2011). The study of adolescent identity formation 2000-2010: a review of longitudinal research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 75-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00716.x
Meeus, W., & Dekovic, M. (1995). Identity development, parental and peer support in adolescence: Results of a national Dutch survey. Adolescence, 30, 931-944.
Meeus, W., Iedema, J., & Maassen, G. H. (2002). Commitment and exploration as mechanisms of identity formation. Psychological Reports, 90, 771-785. doi: 10.2466/pr0.90.3.771-785
Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom. Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133-144. doi: 10.1177/1477878509104318
Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323-367. doi: 10.3102/00346543070003323
Pittman, L. D., & Richmond, A. (2007). Academic and psychological functioning in late adolescence: The importance of school belonging. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75, 270-290. doi: 10.3200/jexe.75.4.270-292
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823-832. doi: 10.1001/jama.278.10.823
Rich, Y., & Schachter, E. P. (2012). High school identity climate and student identity development. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37, 218-228. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.06.002
Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 408-422. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.88.3.408
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68
Ryan, R., & Powelson, C. (1991). Autonomy and relatedness as fundamental to motivation and education. Journal of Experimental Education, 60, 49-66. doi: 10.1080/00220973.1991.10806579
Shochet, I. M., Dadds, M. R., Ham, D., & Montague, R. (2006). School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: Results of a community prediction study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 170-179. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_1
Tapola, A., & Niemivirta, M. (2008). The role of achievement goal orientations in students’ perceptions of and preferences for classroom environment. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 291-312. doi: 10.1348/000709907x205272
Urdan, T. C., & Maehr, M. L. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65, 213-243. doi: 10.3102/00346543065003213
Wehlage, G. G., Rutter, R. A., Smith, G. A., Lesko, N., & Fernandez, R. R. (1989). Reducing the risk: Schools as communities of support. New York: Falmer Press.
Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students’ motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 211-238. doi: 10.1016/s1041-6080(96)90015-1
Zijsling, D., Keuning, J., Kuyper, H., Batenburg, Th. van, & Hemker, B. (2009). Cohortonderzoek COOL5-18. Technisch rapport eerste meting in het derde leerjaar van het voortgezet onderwijs [Cohort study COOL5-18. Technical report of the first wave in the 9th grade of secondary education]. Groningen/Arnhem, the Netherlands: GION/Cito.
Anderman, E. M. (2002). School effects on psychological outcomes during adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 795-809. doi: 10.1037//0022-0663.94.4.795
Anderman, L. H. (2003). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle school students’ sense of school belonging. Journal of Experimental Education, 72, 5-22. doi: 10.1080/00220970309600877
Anderman, L. H., & Anderman, E. M. (1999). Social predictors of changes in students’ achievement goal orientations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 21-37. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1998.0978
Batenburg, Th. A. van, & Werf, M.P.C. van der. (2004). NSCCT: Niet Schoolse Cognitieve Capaciteiten Test. Voor groep 4, 6 en 8 in het basisonderwijs. Verantwoording, normering en handleiding. Groningen, the Netherlands: GION.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497
Bosma, H. A. (1985). Identity development in adolescence. Coping with commitments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Groningen, the Netherlands: University of Groningen.
Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 171-200. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.171
Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., & Meeus, W. (2008). Capturing the dynamics of identity formation in various ethnic groups. Development and validation of a three-dimensional model. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 207-222. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.09.002
Deci, E. I., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. doi: 10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination theory research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). Schools as developmental contexts during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 225-241. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00725.x
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2x2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501-519. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.80.3.501
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Faircloth, B. S. (2012). “Wearing a mask” vs. connecting identity with learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37, 186-194. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.12.003
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59-109. doi: 10.3102/00346543074001059
Goodenow, C., & Grady, K. E. (1993). The relationship of school belonging and friends’ values to academic motivation among urban adolescent students. The Journal of Experimental Education, 62, 60-71. doi: 10.1080/00220973.1993.9943831
Hagborg, W. J. (1998). An investigation of a brief measure of school membership. Adolescence, 33, 461-468.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118
Huang, C. (2012). Discriminant and criterion-related validity of achievement goals in predicting academic achievement: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 48-74. doi: 10.1037/a0026223
Hulleman, C. S., Schrager, S. M., Bodmann, S. M., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010). A meta-analytic review of achievement goal measures: Different labels for the same constructs or different constructs with similar labels? Psychological Bulletin, 136, 422-449. doi: 10.1037/a0018947
Klimstra, T.A., Hale, W.W., Raaijmakers, Q.A.W., Branje, S.J.T. & Meeus, W.H.J. (2010). Identity formation in adolescence: Change or stability? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 150-162. doi: 10.1007/s10964-009-9401-4
King, R. B., & McInerney, D. M. (2012). Including social goals in achievement motivation research: Examples from the Philippines. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 5. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol5/iss3/4. doi: 10.9707/2307-0919.1104
King, R. B., Ganotice, F. A., & Watkins, D. A. (2014). A cross-cultural analysis of achievement and social goals among Chinese and Filipino students. Social Psychology of Education, 17, 439-455. Published Online First May 2014. doi: 10.1007/s11218-014-9251-0
King, R. B., McInerney, D. M., & Watkins, D. A. (2012). Competitiveness is not that bad…at least in the East: Testing the hierarchical model of achievement motivation in the Asian setting. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 446-457. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.10.003
Korpershoek, H., Kuyper, H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2015). Differences in students’ school motivation: A latent class modelling approach. Social Psychology of Education, 18, 137-163. doi:10.1007/s11218-014-9274-6
Korpershoek, H., Xu, J. K., Mok, M. M. C., McInerney, M. D., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2015). Testing the multidimensionality of the Inventory of School Motivation in a Dutch student sample. Journal of Applied Measurement, 16, 41-59.
Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E. (2010). Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 683-698. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.002
Lannegrand-Willems, L., & Bosma, H. (2006). Identity development-in-context: The school as an important context for identity development. Identity, 6, 85-113. doi: 10.1207/s1532706xid0601_6
Ma, X. (2003). Sense of belonging to school: Can schools make a difference? The Journal of Educational Research, 96, 340-349. doi: 10.1080/00220670309596617
Maehr, M. L. (1984). Meaning and motivation: Toward a theory of personal investment. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education, vol. 1 (pp. 115-144). New York: Academic Press.
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551-558. doi: 10.1037/h0023281
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 159-187). New York: Wiley.
Marcia, J. E. (1994). The empirical study of ego identity. In H. A. Bosma, T. L. G. Graafsma, H. D. Grotevant, & D. J. de Levita (Eds.), Identity and development. An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 67-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
McInerney, D. M., & Ali, J. (2006). Multidimensional and hierarchical assessment of school motivation: Cross-cultural validation. Educational Psychology, 26, 595-612. doi: 10.1080/01443410500342559
McInerney, D. M., & Sinclair, K. E. (1991). Cross-cultural testing: Inventory of school motivation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 123-133. doi: 10.1177/0013164491511011
McInerney, D. M., & Sinclair, K. E. (1992). Dimensions of school motivation: A cross-cultural validation study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23, 389-406. doi: 10.1177/0022022192233009
McInerney, D. M., Dowson, M., & Yeung, A. S. (2005). Facilitating conditions for school motivation: Construct validity and applicability. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65, 1046-1066. doi: 10.1177/0013164405278561
McInerney, D. M., Marsh, H. W., & Yeung, A. S. (2003). Toward a hierarchical goal theory model of school motivation. Journal of Applied Measurement, 4, 335-357.
Meeus, W. (1996). Studies on identity development in adolescence: An overview of research and some new data. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 569-598. doi: 10.1007/bf01537355
Meeus, W. (2011). The study of adolescent identity formation 2000-2010: a review of longitudinal research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 75-94. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00716.x
Meeus, W., & Dekovic, M. (1995). Identity development, parental and peer support in adolescence: Results of a national Dutch survey. Adolescence, 30, 931-944.
Meeus, W., Iedema, J., & Maassen, G. H. (2002). Commitment and exploration as mechanisms of identity formation. Psychological Reports, 90, 771-785. doi: 10.2466/pr0.90.3.771-785
Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom. Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133-144. doi: 10.1177/1477878509104318
Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323-367. doi: 10.3102/00346543070003323
Pittman, L. D., & Richmond, A. (2007). Academic and psychological functioning in late adolescence: The importance of school belonging. The Journal of Experimental Education, 75, 270-290. doi: 10.3200/jexe.75.4.270-292
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the national longitudinal study on adolescent health. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823-832. doi: 10.1001/jama.278.10.823
Rich, Y., & Schachter, E. P. (2012). High school identity climate and student identity development. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37, 218-228. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.06.002
Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 408-422. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.88.3.408
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. doi: 10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68
Ryan, R., & Powelson, C. (1991). Autonomy and relatedness as fundamental to motivation and education. Journal of Experimental Education, 60, 49-66. doi: 10.1080/00220973.1991.10806579
Shochet, I. M., Dadds, M. R., Ham, D., & Montague, R. (2006). School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: Results of a community prediction study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 170-179. doi: 10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_1
Tapola, A., & Niemivirta, M. (2008). The role of achievement goal orientations in students’ perceptions of and preferences for classroom environment. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 291-312. doi: 10.1348/000709907x205272
Urdan, T. C., & Maehr, M. L. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65, 213-243. doi: 10.3102/00346543065003213
Wehlage, G. G., Rutter, R. A., Smith, G. A., Lesko, N., & Fernandez, R. R. (1989). Reducing the risk: Schools as communities of support. New York: Falmer Press.
Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students’ motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 211-238. doi: 10.1016/s1041-6080(96)90015-1
Zijsling, D., Keuning, J., Kuyper, H., Batenburg, Th. van, & Hemker, B. (2009). Cohortonderzoek COOL5-18. Technisch rapport eerste meting in het derde leerjaar van het voortgezet onderwijs [Cohort study COOL5-18. Technical report of the first wave in the 9th grade of secondary education]. Groningen/Arnhem, the Netherlands: GION/Cito.