Fishermen or Swarm Dynamics? Should we Understand Jihadist Online-Radicalization as a Top-Down or Bottom-Up Process?

Authors

  • Till Baaken
  • Linda Schlegel

Keywords:

Online-Recruitment, Online-Radicalization, Hoffman, Sageman

Abstract

The internet has profoundly changed the way we communicate, including how jihadist groups seek to reach Western audiences with their propaganda strategies. Cases of believed online-radicalization call for a re-evaluation of radicalization processes, previously thought to depend on face-to-face interactions. Based on the Hoffman-Sageman debate on whether top-down or bottom-up processes drive terrorism, this essay explores both social movement and organizational approaches to understand online-radicalization. Do jihadist organizations such as Al-Qaeda and IS act as ‘fishermen’, actively engaging in the radicalization processes of individual recruits, or is radicalization driven by social group dynamics with little organizational involvement? Essentially, the larger question is: What role do organizational structures play for radicalization in times of ‘virtual jihad’? Bottom-up radicalization processes are facilitated online, because the conditions for Sageman’s ‘bunch of guys’ are replicated by the characteristics of virtual communication: an echo chamber effect causes frame-alignment through repetition and enables ‘digital natives’ to communicate claims that resonate with other ‘digital natives’. Top-down structures are influential, because organizations continue to employ sophisticated propaganda development, preachers and special recruiters or ‘fishermen’. The article finds evidence for both schools of thought and concludes that the internet facilitates both types of radicalization mechanisms. Only a holistic strategy will be successful in battling online-radicalization and must include both targeting direct channels through which the organizations execute control over recruits, and breaking the echo chamber created by social movement dynamics in the virtual world. While countermeasures need to include the provision of alternative social narratives and the utilization of ‘digital natives’ to make counter-messages more effective, organizational structures need to be tackled simultaneously, not only by identifying and arresting preachers and recruiters, but also through stronger internet governance tools and collaboration with social media companies.

Author Biographies

Till Baaken

Research Fellow at the Violence Prevention Network e.V. 

Email: till_baaken@web.de, Twitter: @tillbaaken

Linda Schlegel

Junior Analyst at Global Risk Insights

References

Atran, S. (2010). Talking to the enemy: Violent Extremism, sacred values, and what it means to be human. London: Penguin Books.

Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. (2nd edition). London: Verso.

Bartlett, J. and Litter, M. (2011). Inside the EDL: populist politics in a digital age. Retrieved from: https:// www.demos.co.uk/files/Inside_the_edl_WEB.pdf?1331035419, accessed 20/05/17.

von Behr, I., Reding, A., Edwards, C. and Gribbon, L. (2013). Radicalisation in the Digital Era: The Use of the Internet in 15 Cases of Terrorism and Extremism. RAND. Retrieved from: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR453.readonline.html, accessed 24/03/17.

Benford, R. and Snow, D. (2000). Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment. Annual Review of Sociology. Vol. 6 (26). pp. 611-639.

Ben-Ner, A. and Kramer, A. (2006). Do We Prefer People Who Are Similar to Us? Experimental Evidence on Giving and Work Behaviors. Retrieved from: http://conf.som.yale.edu/obsummer07/PaperBen-NerKramer.pdf, accessed 25/06/17.

Benson, D. (2014). Why the Internet Is Not Increasing Terrorism. Security Studies Vol. 23 (2), pp. 293-328.

Berger, J. (2015). Tailored Online Interventions: The Islamic State’s Recruitment Strategy. Combating Terrorism Center at West Point Vol. 8 (10) Retrieved from: https://ctc.usma.edu/posts/tailored-online-interventions-the-islamic-states-recruitment-strategy, accessed 30/03/17.

Berger, J. and Strathearn, B. (2013). Who Matters Online: Measuring Influence, Evaluating Content and Countering Violent Extremism in Online Social Networks. ICSR. Retrieved from: http://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/ICSR_Berger-and-Strathearn.pdf, accessed 27/03/17.

Bhui, K. and Ibrahim, Y. (2013). Marketing the ‘radical’: Symbolic Communication and Persuasive Technologies in Jihadist Websites. Transcultural Psychiatry Vol. 50 (2), pp. 216-234.

Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into Violent Extremism I: A Review of Social Science Theories. Journal of Strategic Security Vol. 4 (4), pp.7-36.

Bouhana, N. and Wikström, P. (2011). Al-Qa’ida-Influenced Radicalisation: A Rapid Evidence Assessment Guided by Situational Action Theory. UK Home Office. Retrieved from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/116724/occ97.pdf, accessed 04/04/17.

Brandon, J. (2008). Virtual Caliphate: Islamic Extremists and their Websites. Centre for Social Cohesion. Retrieved from: http://civitas.org.uk/pdf/VirtualCaliphate.pdf, accessed 21/05/17.

Bloom, M. Hicham, T. and Horgan, J. (2017). Navigating ISIS’s Preferred Platform: Telegram. Terrorism and Political Violence. DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2017.1339695.

Burke, J. (2016). The Age of Selfie Jihad: How Evolving Media Technology Is Changing Terrorism. CTC Sentinel Vol. 9 (11), pp. 1-8.

Carter, J. Maher, S. and Neumann, P. (2014). #Greenbirds: Measuring Importance and Influence in Syrian Foreign Fighter Networks. ICSR. Retrieved from: http://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/ICSR-Report-Greenbirds-Measuring-Importance-and-Infleunce-in-Syrian-Foreign-Fighter-Networks.pdf, accessed 27/03/17.

Conway, M. (2017). Determining the Role of the Internet in Violent Extremism and Terrorism: Six Suggestions for Progressing Research. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol 40. (1)., pp. 77-98.

Dalgaard-Nielsen, A. (2010). Violent Radicalization in Europe: What We Know and What We Do Not Know. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol. 33 (9), pp.797-814.

Durante, M. (2011). The Online Construction of Personal Identity through Trust and Privacy. Information. pp.594-620. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220121535_The_Online_Construction_of_Personal_Identity_Through_Trust_and_Privacy, accessed 23/05/17.

Edwards, C. and Gribbon, L. (2013). Pathways to Violent Extremism in the Digital Era. The RUSI Journal Vol. 158 (5), pp. 40-47.

Frankfurter Neue Presse (9.2.2012). Wie Arid Uka am Flughafen zum Mörder wurde. Available at: http://www.fnp.de/rhein-main/Wie-Arid-Uka-am-Flughafen-zum-Moerder-wurde;art801,407224, accessed 02/12/17.

Gendron, A. (2017). The Call to Jihad: Charismatic Preachers and the Internet. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol. 40 (1), pp. 44-61.

Halverson, J. and Way, A. (2012). The Curious Case of Colleen LaRose: Social Margins, New Media, and Online Radicalization. Media, War & Conflict Vol. 5(2), pp. 139-153.

Hoffman, B. (2006). Inside Terrorism. New York City: Columbia University Press.

Hoffman, M. (2008). The Myth of Grass-Roots Terrorism: Why Osama Bin Laden Still Matters. Foreign Affairs Vol. 87 (3), pp. 133-138.

Ingram, H. (2017). An Analysis of Inspire and Dabiq : Lessons from AQAP and Islamic State’s Propaganda War. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol. 40 (5), pp. 1-19.

Joscelyn, T. (2016). Terror Plots in Germany, France Were ‘remote-Controlled’ by Islamic State Operatives. FDD’s Long War Journal. Retrieved from: http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/09/terror-plots-in-germany-france-were-remote-controlled-by-islamic-state-operatives.php, accessed 9/12/17.

King, M. and Taylor, D. (2011). The Radicalization of Homegrown Jihadists: A Review of Theoretical Models and Social Psychological Evidence. Terrorism and Political Violence Vol. 23 (4), pp.602-622.

Kirby, A. (2007). The London Bombers as ‘Self-Starters’: A Case Study in Indigenous Radicalization and the Emergence of Autonomous Cliques. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol. 30 (5), pp.415-428.

Koehler, D. (2014). The Radical Online: Individual Radicalization Processes and the Role of the Internet. Journal for Deradicalization, Winter (2014/15), pp. 116-134.

Liebermann, J. and Collins, S. (2008). Violent Islamist Extremism, the Internet, and the Homegrown Terrorist Threat. United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Majority and Minority staff of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs (Committee). Retrieved from: https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:QDg2qTiD0UkJ:https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/download/violent-islamist-extremism-the-homegrown-terrorist-threat-and-the-internet+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=fr, accessed 05/06/17.

McNicol, S. (2016). Responding to Concerns About Online Radicalization in the U.K. Schools Through a Radicalization Critical Digital Literacy Approach. Computers in the Schools Vol. 33 (4), pp.227-238.

Meleagrou-Hitchens, A. and Kaderbhai, N. (2017). Research Perspectives on Online Radicalisation: A Literature Review 2006-2016. Retrieved from: http://icsr.info/2017/05/icsr-vox-pol-paper-research-perspectives-online-radicalisation-literature-review-2006-2016/, accessed 09/12/17.

Milton, D. (2016). Communication Breakdown: Unraveling the Islamic State’s Media Efforts. West Point: Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. Retrieved from: https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/ISIL-Media2.pdf, accessed 05/09/17.

Moghaddam, F. (2005). The Staircase to Terrorism. American Psychologists. Vol. 60 (2). pp.161-169.

Musawi, M. (2010). Cheering for Osama: How jihadists use internet discussion forums. Quilliam Foundation. Retrieved from: http://www.quilliaminternational.com/new-quilliam-report-cheering-for-osama-how-jihadists-use-internet-discussion-forums/, accessed 23/05/17.

Neumann, P. (2012). Countering Online Radicalization in America. National Security Program Homeland Security Project. Washington, D.C.: Bipartisan Policy Center. Retrieved from: http://bipartisanpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/default/files/BPC%20_Online%20Radicalization%20Report.pdf, accessed 07/06/2017.

Neumann, P. (2013). Options and Strategies for Countering Online Radicalization in the United States. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol. 36 (6), pp. 431-459.

Page, K., DK and Mapstone, M. (2010). How does the web make youth feel? Exploring the positive digital native rhetoric. Journal of Marketing Management. Vol. 26 (13). pp.1345-1366.

Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 1. On the Horizon. Vol. 9 (5). pp.1-6.

Prensky, M. (2001b). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants Part 2: Do they really think differently? On the Horizon. Vol. 9 (6). pp.1-6.

Rudner, M. (2017). ‘Electronic Jihad’: The Internet as Al Qaeda’s Catalyst for Global Terror. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Vol. 40 (1), pp. 10-23.

Sageman, M. (2008) Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Sageman, M. and Hoffman, B. (2008). The Reality of Grass-Roots Terrorism [with Reply]. Foreign Affairs Vol. 87 (4), pp.163-166.

Sageman, M. (2004) Understanding Terror Networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Sardarnia, K. and Safizadeh, R. (2017). The Internet and Its Potentials for Networking and Identity Seeking: A Study on ISIS. Terrorism and Political Violence. DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2017.1341877.

Schmid, A. and Jongman, A. (2005). Political Terrorism. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.

Sciolino, E. and Schmitt, E. (2008). A Not Very Private Feud Over Terrorism. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/08/weekinreview/08sciolino.html, accessed 23/11/17.

Thompson, R. (2012). Radicalization and the Use of Social Media. Journal of Strategic Security Vol. 4 (4), pp. 167-190.

Ulrich, A. (2016). Attackers in Germany Had Contact with Suspected IS Members. Spiegel Online (5.8.2016). Retrieved from: http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/attackers-in-germany-had-contact-with-suspected-is-members-a-1106271.html, accessed 09/12/17.

U.S. Department of Justice (2014). Awareness Brief: Online Radicalization to Violent Extremism. Retrieved from: http://www.theiacp.org/portals/0/pdfs/radicalizationtoviolentextremismawarenessbrief.pdf, accessed 19/05/17.

Venhaus, J. (2010). Why Youth Join Al-Qaeda. USIP Special Report. Retrieved from: https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR236Venhaus.pdf, accessed 20/05/17.

Weimann, G. and Hoffman, B. (2006). Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenges. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.

Weinberg, L., Pedahzur, A. and Hirsch-Hoefler, S. (2004). The Challenges of Conceptualizing Terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence. Vol. 16 (4), pp.777-794.

Wiktorowicz, Q. (2005). Radical Islam Rising: Muslim Extremism in the West. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.

Wilkinson, A. (2016). We need to talk about the online radicalisation of young, white men. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/15/alt-right-manosphere-mainstream-politics-breitbart, accessed 19/05/17.

Winter, C. (2015). The Virtual ‘Caliphate’: Understanding Islamic State’s Propaganda Strategy. London: Quilliam Foundation. Retrieved from: https://www.stratcomcoe.org/charlie-winter-virtual-caliphate-understanding-islamic-states-propaganda-strategy, accessed 23/09/17.

Winter, C. (2016). Special Report: An integrated approach to Islamic State recruitment. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.aspi.org.au/publications/an-integrated-approach-to-islamic-state-recruitment/SR88_IS-recruitment.pdf, accessed 22/05/17.

Yourish, K., Watkins, D. and Giratikanon, T. (2016). Where ISIS has directed and inspired attacks around the world. The New York Times (March 22, 2016). Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/06/17/world/middleeast/map-isis-attacks-around-the-world.html, accessed 09/12/17.

YouthCan (2017). http://youthcan.net/, accessed 03/11/17.

Downloads

Published

2017-12-20

Issue

Section

Articles