Cognitively central actors and their personal networks in an energy efficiency training program
Main Article Content
Abstract
This article aims to examine cognitively central actors and their personal networks in the emerging field of energy efficiency. Cognitively central actors are frequently sought for professional advice by other actors and, therefore, they are positioned in the middle of a social network. They often are important knowledge resources, especially in emerging fields where standard knowledge exchange mechanisms are weak. By adopting a personal network approach, we identified the cognitively central participants of a one-year energy efficiency training program, studied the structure and heterogeneity of their personal networks and determined which features were relevant to achieving these cognitively central positions. At the end of the training, the social networking questionnaire was sent to 74 course participants. Semi-structured interviews were conducted for the six most-central actors, whose personal networks were larger than those of the other participants. These six actors differed from each other in many respects; there did not appear to be a single explanation for why these persons achieved their central positions. In conclusion, we propose that becoming a cognitively central actor is an intricate process. It cannot be explained only, for instance, by actors’ educational backgrounds, the level of their previous energy efficiency knowledge or their field of know-how. To understand this phenomenon, we must examine which organizations such people come from and how their expert profiles, which are related to their fields and competences, fit into the wider context of energy efficiency. More research is needed to determine whether the results are only typical of emerging fields.
Article Details
How to Cite
Hytönen, K., Palonen, T., & Hakkarainen, K. (2014). Cognitively central actors and their personal networks in an energy efficiency training program. Frontline Learning Research, 2(2), 15–37. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v2i2.90
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References
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Lin, N. (2001). Social capital. A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lozares, C., Verd, J. M., Cruz, I., & Barranco, O. (2013). Homophily and heterophily in personal networks. From mutual acquaintance to relationship intensity. Quality & Quantity. doi: 10.1007/s11135-013-9915-4.
McCarty, C., & Govindaramanujam, S. (2005). A modified elicitation of personal networks using dynamic visualization. Connections, 26, 61–69.
McCarty, C, Molina, J. L., Aguilar, C., & Rota, L. (2007). A comparison of social network mapping and personal network visualization. Field Methods, 19, 145–162. doi: 10.1177/1525822X06298592.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.
Meyer, M. (2010). The rise of knowledge broker. Science Communication, 32, 118–127. doi: 10.1177/1075547009359797.
Mieg, H. A. (2006). Social and sociological factors in the development of expertise. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. Feltovich, & R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 743–760). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Morrison, A. (2008). Gatekeepers of knowledge within industrial districts: Who they are, how they interact. Regional Studies, 42, 817–835.
Nardi, B. A., Whittaker, S., & Schwartz, H. (2000). It’s not what you know, it’s who you know: Work in the information age. First Monday, 5.
Nebus, J. (2006). Building collegial information networks: A theory of advice network generation. The Academy of Management Review, 31, 615–637. doi: 10.2307/20159232.
Palonen, T. (2003). Shared knowledge and the web of relationships. Turku: Painosalama.
Palonen, T., Hakkarainen, K., Talvitie, J,. & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Network ties, cognitive centrality, and team interaction within a telecommunication company. In H. P. A. Boshuizen, R. Bromme, & H. Gruber (Eds.), Professional learning: Gaps and transitions on the way from novice to expert (pp. 271–294). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher.
Palonen, T., Lehtinen, E,. & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2014). How expertise is created in emerging professional fields. In S. Billett, T. Halttunen, & M. Koivisto (Eds.), Promoting, assessing, recognizing and certifying lifelong learning: International perspectives and practices (pp. 131–149). Dordrecht: Springer.
Pataraia, N. Margaryan, A., Falconer, I., & Littlejohn, A. (2013). How and what do academics learn through their personal networks. Journal of Further and Higher Education. doi: 10.1080/0309877X.2013.831041.
Rajagopal, K., Joosten-ten Brinke, D., Van Bruggen, J., & Sloep, P. (2012). Understanding personal learning networks: Their structure, content and the networking skills needed to optimally use them. First Monday, 17, 1–12.
Reagans, R. (2011). Close encounters: Analyzing how social similarity and propinquity contribute to strong network connections. Organization Science, 22, 835–849.
Reagans, R., Argote, L., & Brooks, D. (2005). Individual experience and working together: Predicting learning rates from knowing who knows what and knowing how to work together. Management Science, 51, 869–881. doi: 10.1287/mnsc.1050.0366.
Rissanen, O., Palonen, T., Pitkänen, P., Kuhn, G., & Hakkarainen, K. (2013). Personal social networks and the cultivation of expertise in magic: an interview study. Vocations and Learning, 6, 347–356. doi: 10.1007/s12186-013-9099-z.
Scardamalia, M. (2002). Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of knowledge. In B. Smith (Eds.), Liberal education in a knowledge society (pp. 67–98). Chicago: Open Court.
Sparrowe, R. T., Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 316–325. doi: 10.2307/3069458.
Stasser, G., Abele, S., & Vaughan Parsons, S. (2012). Information flow and influence in collective choice. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 15, 619–635. doi: 10.1177/1368430212453631.
Svendsen, A. C., & Laberge, M. (2005). Convening stakeholder networks: A new way of thinking, being and engaging. Journal of Corporate Citizenship, 19, 91–104.
Sverrisson, Á. (2001). Translation networks, knowledge brokers and novelty construction: Pragmatic environmentalism in Sweden. Acta Sociologica, 44, 313–327. doi: 10.1177/000169930104400403.
Watkins, K. E., Marsick, V. J., & Frenández de Álava, M. (2014). Evaluating informal learning in the workplace. In T. Halttunen, M. Koivisto, & S. Billett (Eds.), Promoting, assessing, recognizing and certifying lifelong learning (pp. 59–77). Dordrecht: Springer.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Akkerman, S., Admiraal, W., Simons, R. J., & Niessen, T. (2006). Considering diversity: Multivoicedness in international academic collaboration. Culture & Psychology, 12, 461–485. doi: 10.1177/1354067X06069947.
Barabasi, L-L. (2002). Linked: How everything is connected to everything else and what it means for business, science, and everyday life. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. Chicago, IL: Open Court.
Bono, J. E., & Anderson, M. H. (2005). The advice and influence networks of transformational leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1306–1314. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1306.
Borgatti, S. P., & Cross, R. (2003). A relational view of information seeking and learning in social networks. Management Science, 49, 432–445.
Borgatti, S. P., Everett, M. G., & Freeman, L. C. (2002). UCINET 6 for Windows. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.
Borgatti, S. P., Mehra, A., Brass, J. P., & Labianca, G. (2009). Network analysis in the social sciences. Science, 323, 892–895. doi: 10.1126/science.1165821.
Burt, R. S. (1999). Entrepreneurs, distrust, and third parties: A strategic look at the dark side of dense networks. In L. L. Thompson, J. M. Levine, & D. M. Messick (Eds.), Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge (pp. 213–243). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Creswick, N., & Westbrook, J. I. (2010). Social network analysis of medication advice-seeking interactions among staff in an Australian hospital. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 79, e116–e125. doi:10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2008.08.005.
Cross, R. (2004). More than an answer: Information relationships for actionable knowledge. Organization Science, 15, 446–462. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1040.0075.
Cross, R., Borgatti, S. P., & Parker, A. (2001). Beyond answers: Dimensions of the advice network. Social Networks, 23, 215–235.
Edwards, A. (2010). Being an expert professional practitioner. London: Springer.
Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practise on the development of superior expert performance. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 683–703). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fuhse, J., & Mützel, S. (2011). Tackling connections, structure, and meaning in networks: Quantitative and qualitative methods in sociological network research. Quality & Quantity, 45, 1067–1089. doi: 10.1007/s11135-011-9492-3.
Gruber, H., Lehtinen, E., Palonen, T., & Degner, S. (2008). Persons in shadow: assessing the social context of high ability. Psychology Science Quarterly, 50, 237–258.
Hatano, G., & Inagaki, K. (1986). Two courses of expertise. In H. A. H. Stevenson, & K. Hakuta (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan (pp. 262–272). New York: Freeman.
Hakkarainen, K., Palonen, T., Paavola, S., & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Communities of networked expertise. Professional and educational perspectives. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Hytönen, K., Palonen, T., Lehtinen, E., & Hakkarainen, K. (2014). Does academic apprenticeship increase networking ties among participants? A case study of an energy efficiency training program. Higher Education. doi: 10.1007/s10734-014-9754-9.
Johri, A. (2008). Boundary spanning knowledge broker: An emerging role in global engineering firms. Proceedings from 38th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference. Saratoga Springs, NY.
Kameda, T., Ohtsubo, Y., & Takezawa, M. (1997). Centrality in sociocognitive networks and social influence: An illustration in a group decision-making context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 296–309. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.73.2.296.
Kleinbaum, A. M., Stuart, T. E., & Tushman, M. L. (2013). Discretion within constraint: Homophily and structure in a formal organization. Organization Science, 24, 1316–1336. doi: 10.1287/orsc.1120.0804.
Krueger, T., Page, T., Hubacek, K., Smith, L., & Hiscock, K. (2012). The role of expert opinion in environmental modelling. Environmental Modelling & Software, 36, 4–18. doi: 10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.01.011.
Lehtinen, E., Hakkarainen, K., & Palonen, T. (in press). Understanding learning for the professions: How theories of learning explain coping with rapid change. In S. Billett, C. Harteis, & H. Gruber. (Eds.), International handbook of research in professional and practice-based learning. Dordrecht: Springer.
Levin, D., & Cross, R. (2004). The strength of weak ties you can trust: The mediating role of trust in effective knowledge transfer. Management Science, 50, 1477–1490. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1030.0136.
Lin, N. (2001). Social capital. A theory of social structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lozares, C., Verd, J. M., Cruz, I., & Barranco, O. (2013). Homophily and heterophily in personal networks. From mutual acquaintance to relationship intensity. Quality & Quantity. doi: 10.1007/s11135-013-9915-4.
McCarty, C., & Govindaramanujam, S. (2005). A modified elicitation of personal networks using dynamic visualization. Connections, 26, 61–69.
McCarty, C, Molina, J. L., Aguilar, C., & Rota, L. (2007). A comparison of social network mapping and personal network visualization. Field Methods, 19, 145–162. doi: 10.1177/1525822X06298592.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.
Meyer, M. (2010). The rise of knowledge broker. Science Communication, 32, 118–127. doi: 10.1177/1075547009359797.
Mieg, H. A. (2006). Social and sociological factors in the development of expertise. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. Feltovich, & R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 743–760). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Morrison, A. (2008). Gatekeepers of knowledge within industrial districts: Who they are, how they interact. Regional Studies, 42, 817–835.
Nardi, B. A., Whittaker, S., & Schwartz, H. (2000). It’s not what you know, it’s who you know: Work in the information age. First Monday, 5.
Nebus, J. (2006). Building collegial information networks: A theory of advice network generation. The Academy of Management Review, 31, 615–637. doi: 10.2307/20159232.
Palonen, T. (2003). Shared knowledge and the web of relationships. Turku: Painosalama.
Palonen, T., Hakkarainen, K., Talvitie, J,. & Lehtinen, E. (2004). Network ties, cognitive centrality, and team interaction within a telecommunication company. In H. P. A. Boshuizen, R. Bromme, & H. Gruber (Eds.), Professional learning: Gaps and transitions on the way from novice to expert (pp. 271–294). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher.
Palonen, T., Lehtinen, E,. & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2014). How expertise is created in emerging professional fields. In S. Billett, T. Halttunen, & M. Koivisto (Eds.), Promoting, assessing, recognizing and certifying lifelong learning: International perspectives and practices (pp. 131–149). Dordrecht: Springer.
Pataraia, N. Margaryan, A., Falconer, I., & Littlejohn, A. (2013). How and what do academics learn through their personal networks. Journal of Further and Higher Education. doi: 10.1080/0309877X.2013.831041.
Rajagopal, K., Joosten-ten Brinke, D., Van Bruggen, J., & Sloep, P. (2012). Understanding personal learning networks: Their structure, content and the networking skills needed to optimally use them. First Monday, 17, 1–12.
Reagans, R. (2011). Close encounters: Analyzing how social similarity and propinquity contribute to strong network connections. Organization Science, 22, 835–849.
Reagans, R., Argote, L., & Brooks, D. (2005). Individual experience and working together: Predicting learning rates from knowing who knows what and knowing how to work together. Management Science, 51, 869–881. doi: 10.1287/mnsc.1050.0366.
Rissanen, O., Palonen, T., Pitkänen, P., Kuhn, G., & Hakkarainen, K. (2013). Personal social networks and the cultivation of expertise in magic: an interview study. Vocations and Learning, 6, 347–356. doi: 10.1007/s12186-013-9099-z.
Scardamalia, M. (2002). Collective cognitive responsibility for the advancement of knowledge. In B. Smith (Eds.), Liberal education in a knowledge society (pp. 67–98). Chicago: Open Court.
Sparrowe, R. T., Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). Social networks and the performance of individuals and groups. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 316–325. doi: 10.2307/3069458.
Stasser, G., Abele, S., & Vaughan Parsons, S. (2012). Information flow and influence in collective choice. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 15, 619–635. doi: 10.1177/1368430212453631.
Svendsen, A. C., & Laberge, M. (2005). Convening stakeholder networks: A new way of thinking, being and engaging. Journal of Corporate Citizenship, 19, 91–104.
Sverrisson, Á. (2001). Translation networks, knowledge brokers and novelty construction: Pragmatic environmentalism in Sweden. Acta Sociologica, 44, 313–327. doi: 10.1177/000169930104400403.
Watkins, K. E., Marsick, V. J., & Frenández de Álava, M. (2014). Evaluating informal learning in the workplace. In T. Halttunen, M. Koivisto, & S. Billett (Eds.), Promoting, assessing, recognizing and certifying lifelong learning (pp. 59–77). Dordrecht: Springer.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.