The complex relationship between students’ critical thinking and epistemological beliefs in the context of problem solving
Main Article Content
Abstract
The study utilized a multi-method approach to explore the connection between critical thinking and epistemological beliefs in a specific problem-solving situation. Data drawn from a sample of ten third-year bioscience students were collected using a combination of a cognitive lab and a performance task from the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA). The cognitive-lab data were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings showed that students’ epistemological beliefs were interwoven into their critical thinking: students used critical thinking as a tool (1) for enhancing understanding and (2) for determining truth or falsehood. Based on this classification, students could be placed in one of two qualitative profiles, either (1) thorough processing or (2) superficial processing. The results indicated that students who showed superficial processing palmed off justification for knowing on authoritative figures. In contrast to previous studies these students did not consider knowledge to be absolutely certain or unquestionable. The findings also show that students with thorough processing believed knowledge to be tentative and fallible, but did not share the relativist view of knowledge where any claim counts because all knowledge is relative. All ten students shared a fallibilist view of knowledge.
Article Details
How to Cite
Hyytinen, H., Holma, K., Toom, A., Shavelson, R. J., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2014). The complex relationship between students’ critical thinking and epistemological beliefs in the context of problem solving. Frontline Learning Research, 2(5), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v2i4.124
Section
Articles
FLR adopts the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs Creative Common License (BY-NC-ND). That is, Copyright for articles published in this journal is retained by the authors with, however, first publication rights granted to the journal. By virtue of their appearance in this open access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial settings.
References
The American Philosophical Association. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction "the Delphi Report". Committee on Pre-College Philosophy. Millbrae, CA: The California Academic Press.
Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2009). Instructional effects on critical thinking: performance on ill-defined issues. Learning and Instruction, 19, 322−334. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.06.010
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011a). Limited learning on college campuses. Society, 48, 203−207. DOI 10.007/s12115-011-9417-8
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011b). Academically adrift. Limited Learning on college campuses. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press.
The Australian Council for Educational Research. (2001). Graduate Skills Assessment. Summary Report. 01/E Occasional Paper Series. Higher Education Division. Retrieved from http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/GSA_SummaryReport.pdf
Baartman, L. K. J., Bastiaens, T. J., Kirschner, P. A., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2007). Evaluating assessment quality in a competence-based education: A qualitative comparison of two frameworks. Educational Research Review 2, 114−129. DOI: 10.1016/j.edurev.2007.06.001
Bailin, S., & Siegel, H. (2003). Critical thinking. In N. Blake, P. Smeyers, R. Smith, & P. Standish (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to the philosophy of education (pp. 181−193). Blackwell Publishing.
Barzilai, S., & Zohar, A. (2012). Epistemic thinking in action: evaluating and integrating online sources. Cognition and Instruction 30, 39−85. DOI:10.1080/07370008.2011.636495
Bleazby, J. (2011). Overcoming relativism and absolutism: Dewey’s ideals of truth and meaning in philosophy for children. Educational Philosophy and Theory 43, 453−466. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00567.x
Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges. A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3, 77−101. DOI: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Cotton, D., & Gresty, K. (2006). Reflecting on the think-aloud method for evaluating e-learning. British Journal of Educational Technology 37, 45−54. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00521.x
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
Dierick, S., & Dochy, F. (2001). New lines in edumetrics: new form of assessment lead to new assessment criteria. Studies in Educational Evaluation 27, 307−329. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-491X(01)00032-3
Elby, A., & Hammer, D. (2001). On the substance of a sophisticated epistemology. Science Education, 554−567. DOI: 10.1002/sce.1023
Ennis, R. (1991). Critical thinking: a streamlined conception. Teaching Philosophy 14, 5−24.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, Ma: MIT Press.
Everitt, N., & Fisher, A. (1995). Modern epistemology: a new introduction. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Fenstermacher, G. D. (1994). The Knower and the Known: The Nature of Knowledge in Research on Teaching. Review of Research in Education 20, 3−56.
Ferguson, L. E., & Bråten, I. (2012). Students’ profiles of knowledge and epistemic beliefs: Changes and relations to multiple-text comprehension. Learning and Instruction 25, 49−61. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.003
Fisher, A., & Scriven, M. (1997). Critical thinking: its definition and assessment. Edgepress and Centre for Research in Critical Thinking. University of East Anglia.
Fisher, A. (2011). Critical thinking: an introduction. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Greene, J. A., & Yu, S. B. (2014). Modelling and measuring epistemic cognition: A qualitative re-investigation. Contemporary Educational Psychology 39, 12−28. DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.10.002
Haig, B. D. (2005). Abductive theory of scientific method. Psychological Methods 10, 371−388.
Halpern, D. F. (2014) Thought and Knowledge. Fifth edition. NY: Psychology Press.
Hammer, D., & Elby, A. (2003). Tapping epistemological resources for learning physics. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 12 (1), 53−90. DOI: 10.1207/S15327809JLS1201_3
Heijltjes, A., van Gog, T., Leppink, J., & Paas, F. (2014). Improving critical thinking: Effects of dispositions and instructions on economics students’ reasoning skills. Learning and Instruction 29, 31−42. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.07.003
Hofer, B. K. & Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hofer, B. K. (2004). Epistemological understanding as a metacognitive process: Thinking aloud during online searching. Educational Psychologist 39, 43−55.
Hofer, B. K. (2005). The Legacy and the challenges: Paul Pintrich’s contributions to personal epistemology research. Educational Psychologist 40, 95−105.
Hofer, B. K. (2006). Domain specificity of personal epistemology: resolved questions, persistent issues, new models. International Journal of Educational Research 45, 85−95.
Holma, K. (2004). Plurealism and education: Israel Scheffler’s synthesis and its presumable educational implications. Educational Theory 54, 419−430.
Holma, K. (2012). Fallibilist pluralism and education for shared citizenship. Educational theory 62, 397−409. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-5446.2012.00453.x
Holma, K. (2014). The Critical Spirit: Emotional and moral dimensions critical thinking. Under review.
Holma, K., & Hyytinen, H. (equal contribution) (2014). The philosophy of personal epistemology. Under review.
Ichikawa, J. J., & Steup, M. (2012). The Analysis of Knowledge. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/knowledge-analysis/>.
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1, 112−133. DOI: 10.1177/1558689806298224
Johnstone, C. J., Bottsford-Miller, N. A., & Thompson, S. J. (2006) Using the think aloud method (cognitive labs) to evaluate test design for students with disabilities and English language learners. Technical Report 44. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, National Centre on educational Outcomes. Retrieved from http://www.cehd.umn.edu/nceo/OnlinePubs/Tech44/
Kaartinen-Koutaniemi, M., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2008) Personal epistemology of psychology, theology and pharmacy students: a comparative study. Studies in Higher Education 33, 179−191. DOI: 10.1080/03075070801916088
Kaartinen-Koutaniemi, M., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2012). Personal Epistemology of University Students: Individual Profiles. Education Research International 2012, 1−8. DOI:10.1155/2012/807645
King, P. M., & Kitchener, K.S. (2004). Reflective Judgment: Theory and Research on the Development of Epistemic Assumptions Trough Adulthood. Educational Psychologist 39, 5−18.
Klein, S., Benjamin, R., Shavelson, R., & Bolus, R. (2007). The collegiate learning assessment, facts and fantasies. Evaluation Review 31, 415−439. DOI: 10.1177/0193841X07303318.
Kuhn, D. (1999). A Developmental Model of Critical thinking. Educational Researcher, 28, 16−25.
Kuhn, D. (2005). Education for thinking. Harvard University Press.
Kuhn, D., & Weinstock M. (2002). What is epistemological thinking and why does it matter? In Barbara K. Hofer & Paul, R. Pintrich (Eds.) Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing, (pp. 121−144). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lahtinen, A-M, & Pehkonen, L. (2013). ‘Seeing things in a new light’: conditions for changes in the epistemological beliefs of university students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 37, 397−415. DOI: 10.1080/0309877X.2011.645458
Lausberg, H., & Sloetjes, H. (2009). Coding gestural behavior with the NEUROGES-ELAN system. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 41(3), 841−849. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/d53722q3k3314374/
Maclellan, E. (2004). How convincing is alternative assessment for use in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 29, 311−321.
Markowitsch, J., & Messerer, K. (2007). Practice-oriented methods in teaching and learning in higher education. In P. Tynjälä, J. Välimaa, & G. Boulton-Lewis (Eds.), Higher education and working life: collaborations, confrontations and challenges (pp. 177−194). Oxford: Elsevier.
Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. (2012). ELAN. [Software]. Available from http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/
Moore, T. (2004). The critical thinking debate: how general are general thinking skills. Higher Education Research & Development 23, 3−18.
Moore, T. (2013). Critical thinking: seven definitions in search of a concept. Studies in Higher Education, 38, 506−522. DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2011.586995
Muis, K. R., Bendixen, L. D., & Haerle, F. C. (2006). Domain-Generality and Domain-Specificity in Personal. Epistemology Research: Philosophical and Empirical Reflections in the Development of a Theoretical Framework. Educational Psychology Review 18, 3–54. DOI: 10.1007/s10648-006-9003-6
Niiniluoto, I. (1999). Critical Scientific Realism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pascarella, E. T., Blaich, C., Martin, G. L., & Hanson, J. M. (2011) How robust are the findings of academically adrift? Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 43, 20–24.
Peirce, C. S. (1934). Pragmatism and Pragmaticism, vol. 5 of Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Perry, W. G. (1970). Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years. Harvard University.
Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Future challenges and directions for theory and research on personal epistemology. In B. K. Hofer & P. Pintrich (Eds.), Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing (pp. 389−414). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Putnam, H. (1981). Reason, Truth and History. Cambridge: Cambridge Press.
Reed, B. (2002). How to think about fallibilism. Philosophical Studies 107, 143−157. DOI: 10.1023/A:1014759313260
Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. London: Hutchinson’s University Library.
Scheffler, I. (1965). Conditions of knowledge. An introduction to epistemology and education. Glenview: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Shavelson, R.J. (2010). Measuring college learning responsibly: Accountability in a new era. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Shope, R. K. (2004). The Analysis of Knowing. In I. Niiniluoto, M. Sintonen, & J. Woleński (Eds.) Handbook of Epistemology (pp. 3−56). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
Siegel, H. (1988). Educating Reason: Rationality, Critical Thinking, and Education. NY: Routledge.
Smith, G. (2002). Are There Domain-Specific Thinking Skills? Journal of Philosophy of Education 36, 207−227. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9752.00270
van Someren, M.W., Barnard, Y. F., & Sandberg, J. A. C. (1994). The think aloud method. A practical guide to modelling cognitive processes. Department of Social Science Informatics. University of Amsterdam. London: Academic Press.
Stes, A., Min-Leliveld, M., Gijbels, D., & Petegem, P. van (2010). The impact of instructional development in higher education: The state-of-the-art of the research. Educational Research Review 5, 25–49. DOI: 10.1016/j.edurev.2009.07.001
Timmermans, S., & Tavory, I. (2012). Theory construction in qualitative research: from grounded theory to abductive analysis. Sociological Theory 30, 167−186. DOI: 10.1177/0735275112457914
Tremblay, K., Lalancette, D., Roseveare, D. (2012) AHELO Feasibility Study Report. Volume 1 − Design and Implementation. Organization for Economic Co-operation and development (OECD). Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/skills-beyond-school/AHELOFSReportVolume1.pdf
Valanides, N. and Angeli, C. 2005. Effects of instruction on changes in epistemological beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology 30, 314−330. DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.01.001
West, E. J. (2004). Perry’s Legacy: Models of Epistemological Development. Journal of Adult Development 11, 61−70.
Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2009). Instructional effects on critical thinking: performance on ill-defined issues. Learning and Instruction, 19, 322−334. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.06.010
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011a). Limited learning on college campuses. Society, 48, 203−207. DOI 10.007/s12115-011-9417-8
Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011b). Academically adrift. Limited Learning on college campuses. Chicago: the University of Chicago Press.
The Australian Council for Educational Research. (2001). Graduate Skills Assessment. Summary Report. 01/E Occasional Paper Series. Higher Education Division. Retrieved from http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/GSA_SummaryReport.pdf
Baartman, L. K. J., Bastiaens, T. J., Kirschner, P. A., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2007). Evaluating assessment quality in a competence-based education: A qualitative comparison of two frameworks. Educational Research Review 2, 114−129. DOI: 10.1016/j.edurev.2007.06.001
Bailin, S., & Siegel, H. (2003). Critical thinking. In N. Blake, P. Smeyers, R. Smith, & P. Standish (Eds.), The Blackwell guide to the philosophy of education (pp. 181−193). Blackwell Publishing.
Barzilai, S., & Zohar, A. (2012). Epistemic thinking in action: evaluating and integrating online sources. Cognition and Instruction 30, 39−85. DOI:10.1080/07370008.2011.636495
Bleazby, J. (2011). Overcoming relativism and absolutism: Dewey’s ideals of truth and meaning in philosophy for children. Educational Philosophy and Theory 43, 453−466. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2009.00567.x
Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges. A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3, 77−101. DOI: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Cotton, D., & Gresty, K. (2006). Reflecting on the think-aloud method for evaluating e-learning. British Journal of Educational Technology 37, 45−54. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00521.x
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
Dierick, S., & Dochy, F. (2001). New lines in edumetrics: new form of assessment lead to new assessment criteria. Studies in Educational Evaluation 27, 307−329. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-491X(01)00032-3
Elby, A., & Hammer, D. (2001). On the substance of a sophisticated epistemology. Science Education, 554−567. DOI: 10.1002/sce.1023
Ennis, R. (1991). Critical thinking: a streamlined conception. Teaching Philosophy 14, 5−24.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, Ma: MIT Press.
Everitt, N., & Fisher, A. (1995). Modern epistemology: a new introduction. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Fenstermacher, G. D. (1994). The Knower and the Known: The Nature of Knowledge in Research on Teaching. Review of Research in Education 20, 3−56.
Ferguson, L. E., & Bråten, I. (2012). Students’ profiles of knowledge and epistemic beliefs: Changes and relations to multiple-text comprehension. Learning and Instruction 25, 49−61. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.003
Fisher, A., & Scriven, M. (1997). Critical thinking: its definition and assessment. Edgepress and Centre for Research in Critical Thinking. University of East Anglia.
Fisher, A. (2011). Critical thinking: an introduction. Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Greene, J. A., & Yu, S. B. (2014). Modelling and measuring epistemic cognition: A qualitative re-investigation. Contemporary Educational Psychology 39, 12−28. DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.10.002
Haig, B. D. (2005). Abductive theory of scientific method. Psychological Methods 10, 371−388.
Halpern, D. F. (2014) Thought and Knowledge. Fifth edition. NY: Psychology Press.
Hammer, D., & Elby, A. (2003). Tapping epistemological resources for learning physics. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 12 (1), 53−90. DOI: 10.1207/S15327809JLS1201_3
Heijltjes, A., van Gog, T., Leppink, J., & Paas, F. (2014). Improving critical thinking: Effects of dispositions and instructions on economics students’ reasoning skills. Learning and Instruction 29, 31−42. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.07.003
Hofer, B. K. & Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hofer, B. K. (2004). Epistemological understanding as a metacognitive process: Thinking aloud during online searching. Educational Psychologist 39, 43−55.
Hofer, B. K. (2005). The Legacy and the challenges: Paul Pintrich’s contributions to personal epistemology research. Educational Psychologist 40, 95−105.
Hofer, B. K. (2006). Domain specificity of personal epistemology: resolved questions, persistent issues, new models. International Journal of Educational Research 45, 85−95.
Holma, K. (2004). Plurealism and education: Israel Scheffler’s synthesis and its presumable educational implications. Educational Theory 54, 419−430.
Holma, K. (2012). Fallibilist pluralism and education for shared citizenship. Educational theory 62, 397−409. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-5446.2012.00453.x
Holma, K. (2014). The Critical Spirit: Emotional and moral dimensions critical thinking. Under review.
Holma, K., & Hyytinen, H. (equal contribution) (2014). The philosophy of personal epistemology. Under review.
Ichikawa, J. J., & Steup, M. (2012). The Analysis of Knowledge. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2012 Edition). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/knowledge-analysis/>.
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1, 112−133. DOI: 10.1177/1558689806298224
Johnstone, C. J., Bottsford-Miller, N. A., & Thompson, S. J. (2006) Using the think aloud method (cognitive labs) to evaluate test design for students with disabilities and English language learners. Technical Report 44. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, National Centre on educational Outcomes. Retrieved from http://www.cehd.umn.edu/nceo/OnlinePubs/Tech44/
Kaartinen-Koutaniemi, M., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2008) Personal epistemology of psychology, theology and pharmacy students: a comparative study. Studies in Higher Education 33, 179−191. DOI: 10.1080/03075070801916088
Kaartinen-Koutaniemi, M., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2012). Personal Epistemology of University Students: Individual Profiles. Education Research International 2012, 1−8. DOI:10.1155/2012/807645
King, P. M., & Kitchener, K.S. (2004). Reflective Judgment: Theory and Research on the Development of Epistemic Assumptions Trough Adulthood. Educational Psychologist 39, 5−18.
Klein, S., Benjamin, R., Shavelson, R., & Bolus, R. (2007). The collegiate learning assessment, facts and fantasies. Evaluation Review 31, 415−439. DOI: 10.1177/0193841X07303318.
Kuhn, D. (1999). A Developmental Model of Critical thinking. Educational Researcher, 28, 16−25.
Kuhn, D. (2005). Education for thinking. Harvard University Press.
Kuhn, D., & Weinstock M. (2002). What is epistemological thinking and why does it matter? In Barbara K. Hofer & Paul, R. Pintrich (Eds.) Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing, (pp. 121−144). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lahtinen, A-M, & Pehkonen, L. (2013). ‘Seeing things in a new light’: conditions for changes in the epistemological beliefs of university students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 37, 397−415. DOI: 10.1080/0309877X.2011.645458
Lausberg, H., & Sloetjes, H. (2009). Coding gestural behavior with the NEUROGES-ELAN system. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 41(3), 841−849. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/d53722q3k3314374/
Maclellan, E. (2004). How convincing is alternative assessment for use in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 29, 311−321.
Markowitsch, J., & Messerer, K. (2007). Practice-oriented methods in teaching and learning in higher education. In P. Tynjälä, J. Välimaa, & G. Boulton-Lewis (Eds.), Higher education and working life: collaborations, confrontations and challenges (pp. 177−194). Oxford: Elsevier.
Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. (2012). ELAN. [Software]. Available from http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/
Moore, T. (2004). The critical thinking debate: how general are general thinking skills. Higher Education Research & Development 23, 3−18.
Moore, T. (2013). Critical thinking: seven definitions in search of a concept. Studies in Higher Education, 38, 506−522. DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2011.586995
Muis, K. R., Bendixen, L. D., & Haerle, F. C. (2006). Domain-Generality and Domain-Specificity in Personal. Epistemology Research: Philosophical and Empirical Reflections in the Development of a Theoretical Framework. Educational Psychology Review 18, 3–54. DOI: 10.1007/s10648-006-9003-6
Niiniluoto, I. (1999). Critical Scientific Realism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pascarella, E. T., Blaich, C., Martin, G. L., & Hanson, J. M. (2011) How robust are the findings of academically adrift? Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 43, 20–24.
Peirce, C. S. (1934). Pragmatism and Pragmaticism, vol. 5 of Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Perry, W. G. (1970). Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years. Harvard University.
Pintrich, P. R. (2002). Future challenges and directions for theory and research on personal epistemology. In B. K. Hofer & P. Pintrich (Eds.), Personal epistemology: The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and knowing (pp. 389−414). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Putnam, H. (1981). Reason, Truth and History. Cambridge: Cambridge Press.
Reed, B. (2002). How to think about fallibilism. Philosophical Studies 107, 143−157. DOI: 10.1023/A:1014759313260
Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. London: Hutchinson’s University Library.
Scheffler, I. (1965). Conditions of knowledge. An introduction to epistemology and education. Glenview: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Shavelson, R.J. (2010). Measuring college learning responsibly: Accountability in a new era. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Shope, R. K. (2004). The Analysis of Knowing. In I. Niiniluoto, M. Sintonen, & J. Woleński (Eds.) Handbook of Epistemology (pp. 3−56). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
Siegel, H. (1988). Educating Reason: Rationality, Critical Thinking, and Education. NY: Routledge.
Smith, G. (2002). Are There Domain-Specific Thinking Skills? Journal of Philosophy of Education 36, 207−227. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9752.00270
van Someren, M.W., Barnard, Y. F., & Sandberg, J. A. C. (1994). The think aloud method. A practical guide to modelling cognitive processes. Department of Social Science Informatics. University of Amsterdam. London: Academic Press.
Stes, A., Min-Leliveld, M., Gijbels, D., & Petegem, P. van (2010). The impact of instructional development in higher education: The state-of-the-art of the research. Educational Research Review 5, 25–49. DOI: 10.1016/j.edurev.2009.07.001
Timmermans, S., & Tavory, I. (2012). Theory construction in qualitative research: from grounded theory to abductive analysis. Sociological Theory 30, 167−186. DOI: 10.1177/0735275112457914
Tremblay, K., Lalancette, D., Roseveare, D. (2012) AHELO Feasibility Study Report. Volume 1 − Design and Implementation. Organization for Economic Co-operation and development (OECD). Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/skills-beyond-school/AHELOFSReportVolume1.pdf
Valanides, N. and Angeli, C. 2005. Effects of instruction on changes in epistemological beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology 30, 314−330. DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.01.001
West, E. J. (2004). Perry’s Legacy: Models of Epistemological Development. Journal of Adult Development 11, 61−70.