Learning to Make Discipline-Specific Knowledge Through Writing Appronfondir des connaissances specifiques a chaque discipline par l'ecriture

During the past decade, the writing across the curriculum (wAc) movement increasingly has turned to the theoretical and pedagogical approaches of writing in the disciplines (WID ), thanks to a rapidly growing body of research on the fieldspecific practices of textual knowledge making in academic and professional writing (e.g., Berkenkotter and Huckin; Geisler; Freedman; Macdonald). As Robert Jones and Joseph Comprone explain, the "second stage" of WAC scholarship goes beyond the premise that writing is an important mode oflearning across the curriculum to examine "the relationship between writing and ways of thinking and knowing in disciplinary communities" (p.61). Through the analysis which follows, we hope to contribute to this study of the relationship between writing and discipline-specific kinds of learning and knowledge making. Specifically, we will draw on sample writing to learn activities from four writing-intensive courses at our university2 to show how the design of these pedagogical genres incorporates the learning of professional disciplinary modes of thinking and communicating. Based on the analysis of these activities, we suggest that, although pedagogical genres such as these are not identical to professional genres, they do possess features that may help undergraduate students to learn about and begin to enter professional communities of discourse. The activities we have selected for discussion were presented by our colleagues at faculty workshops on writing to learn activities held in the fall of 1997. As faculty consultants for our university's WAC program, we organized the workshops as forums for interdisciplinary exchange on the possibilities for writing to learn in different programs of study. Faculty participated voluntarily and we did not vet or otherwise screen the activities presented; rather, we encouraged faculty to interpret


Atelier:
•presentations d'activites pedagogiques pour mettre en pratique le principe "ecrire pour apprendre" •quatre activites seront discutees: "Leaming Journal", Nursing "Exercise on Using an Academic Literature", Economics "Exercice de comprehension de texte", philosophie "Prise de notes", sociolinguistique the concept of "writing to learn activity" in the way that made most sense to them. In all, five activities were presented at the English workshop (from Economics, English, Nursing, Modern Languages and Religious Studies), and three at the French workshop (two from philosophie and one from sociolinguistique); in the interests of providing examples from several disciplines and representing different pedagogical approaches, we have selected the following four: 3 • • • • "LeamingJoumal", Nursing "Exercise on Using an Academic Literature" ,Economics "Exercice de comprehension de texte", philosophie "Prise de notes", sociolinguistique Our purpose in discussing these activities is not first and foremost to recommend them as models to other teachers, though some readers may well find them valuable; instead, our objective is to try to understand the design of these activities through the theoretical framework of WAC and WID, and in particular the concepts of pedagogical and professional genres. We also should note that this study focuses on the teachers' designs not the students' practices of the activities -that is, on what the activities are intended to accomplish rather than on what they in practice do accomplish. We are, of course, very interested in the latter issue as well, but it is beyond the scope of this study.
Before embarking on further discussion of the activities themselves, the next section summarizes our theoretical framework: first, we briefly review relevant aspects of the principles of writing to learn and writing as discipline-specific, and then we suggest a conceptual representation of the relationship between pedagogical and professional genres which we will employ in our discussion of each of the four activities.

Writing to Learn
Since the landmark research of scholars such as James Britton, Janet Emig, James Moffett and Donald Murray, among others, the principle of writing as mode of learning has fundamentally informed composition teaching and, subsequently, the development of WAC programmes. Typically, the conception of writing as mode of learning foregrounds the process of meaning-making rather than the preparation of final products. As such, it privileges informal and exploratory writing as vitally important to the discovery and development of ideas and meaning. Within this general understanding, two main theoretical perspectives can be distinguished for interpreting writing as a mode of learning. 4 1.The cognitive perspective stresses writing as a complex mode of thinking. 5 In this sense, writing is a means of individual intellectual development, a way of formulating ideas and learning subjectmatters. This view presupposes that writing, and particularly informal writing, helps students to think and learn in courses across the curriculum, from the humanities to the social sciences and natural sciences. As Paul Connolly explains in Writing to Learn Mathematics and Scietues, " 'Writing to Learn' is less about formal uses of writing to display memory and test mastery than it is about itiformal writing; about language that is forming meaning; about writing that is done regularly in and out of class to help students acquire a personal ownership of ideas conveyed in lectures and textbooks" (p.3).
2.While Connolly notes the role of writing to learn as a means for students to achieve "personal ownership" of course content, the expressivist perspective of writing to learn places even greater •r ecriture est un moyen de developper Jes connaissances personnelles (perspective "expressivist") •"ecrire pour apprendre" s'oppose a l'apprentissage de la forme emphasis on the "personal" dimensions ofwriting. 6 Informal writing in this view creates opportunities for students to explore, develop and express their individual selves. Writing is validated primarily as a mode of self-discovery and self-expression. As Ann Johns explains, "In a class based on Expressivist theory, the emphasis is on self-discovery and development of a unique, personal voice.... [In] approaches that draw from Expressivism, the effort is made to liberate students from outside constraints so that they can write and read freely and creatively" (p.10).7 Although these two perspectives emphasize different aspects of the concept of writing to learn, they also share common ground and both seem to have influenced the development of what Jones and Comprone might call "first stage" WAC programs. Indeed, C. H. Knoblauch and Lil Brannon's mid-1980s argument for writing across the curriculum draws on both these perspectives to show the significance of informal, exploratory writing activities in courses across the curriculum as opposed to a "grammar across the curriculum" approach to WAC. According to them, writing across the curriculum programs at the college or university level should use writing as means for "making connections" and for "personal meaning making" (p.468). This process is primarily an "expressive" one because it allows individual students "to confront new experience, make connections with other experience and discover some personal coherence" (p.470); it gives them the "freedom to explore the ideas of a discipline from a personal vantage point ... without the anxiety of formal expectations that are made to seem even more important than the search for meaning" (p.470). In Knoblauch and Brannon's argument, then, writing to learn within WAC programs can help students learn about and make connections with disciplinary subjectmatters. They present this as an alternative to writing instruction motivated by "a concern for formal constraints"

Writing as Discipline-Specific
If the "first stage" ofwAc theory and practice has made a compelling case for integrating writing as a mode oflearning across the curriculum, in the senses discussed above, then the next stage, as Jones and Comprone argue, should attend more to "the relationship between writing and ways of thinking and knowing in disciplinary communities" (p.1). In this approach, the principle of writing as discipline-specific becomes central. By contrast with the emphasis in writing to learn theory on writing as an individual cognitive and personal process, theories of writing as discipline specific stress what Johns calls the "socioliterate" nature of writing (p.14). The concept of discourse communities or, as James Reither calls them, "knowledge/discourse communities" (p.143) is central to this social view of writing: each discipline shares particular methods of inquiry and ways of communicating that identify it as a distinctive discourse community. Thus, the kinds of learning and cognitive activities that writing facilitates vary from discipline to discipline and course to course.
But does the shift of focus that Jones and Comprone call for entail a rejection of the original principle of writing to learn? Does attending to the disciplinary conventions of writing and communication mean re-emphasizing a narrow "concern for formal constraints" and "technical propriety"? Does a "philosophical and tactical divide" exist between these principles, a conflict characterized by Harriet Malinowitz as "voice versus discourse, learning versus performance, process versus form" (p.292)?
Our own view is that the concepts of writing as a mode of learning and of writing as a discipline-specific practice do not necessarily conflict with each other; rather, we see the growth in studies of disciplinary practices of communication as providing the basis for an enriched and •apprendre ne se limite pas seulement au contenu du cours ou aux connaissances personnelles, mais aussi a la forme de la discipline.

Connaissances des professionnels et apprentissage des debutants
•Jes professionnels ont Jes connaissances specifiques aux formes •cette connaissance cognitive est liee aux activites de la discipline reconfigured understanding of writing as a mode of learning, one which transcends "the repressive false dichotomy between form and process" (Coe,p.181). That is, we suggest that the range of "learning" that occurs through writing includes not only learning course content or engaging in self-discovery, but also -and perhaps most importantly? -learning the forms of inquiry and textual knowledge-making that characterize particular disciplines and that vary from discipline to discipline.

Pedagogical and Professional Genres
Recent developments in genre theory, particularly in the context of scholarship on writing in the disciplines, offer a fruitful avenue to further conceptualize the relationship between the principles of writing to learn and writing as discipline-specific. Genre theory allows us to understand the community-based practices of academic discourse not simply as a superficial set of formal constraints arbitrarily imposed on texts, but instead as ways of thinking and making meaning that are "created by and for the collective or group" (Pare and Smart, p.146). As genres are activated in disciplinary communities, they construct as well as communicate discipline-specific knowledge (see Pare and Smart, p.146; Berkenkotter and Huckin, p.1and23) As Carol Berkenkotter and Thomas Huckin explain, genres address and respond to specific rhetorical situations within particular communities of discourse by drawing on cognitive strategies that are socially derived (see Berkenkotter and Huckin, p.7 to 13). In this sense, writing within a particular genre means at once using writing to thinkto engage in complex acts of cognition -and to communicate using forms that other members of the community will recognize and understand. Importantly, this theory stresses that the kinds of thinking and knowledge-making that a particular genre fosters are specific to the academic discipline or "knowledge/discourse community" in which the genre occurs. In this sense, the principle of writing as mode of •comment Jes debutants en ecrivant apprennentils Jes connaissances specifiques aux formes de la discipline?
Learning to Make learning and thinking certainly applies, but it is refined to acknowledge the different disciplinary forms of cognition and meaning-making.
While scholars such as Berkenkotter and Huckin concentrate primarily on the communicative activities of professional or expert members of disciplinary communities, we are concerned with the role that undergraduate writing to learn activities play in the enculturation of undergraduate university students into the genres of thinking and communicating that characterize particular disciplines. That is, how do novices write to learn discipline-specific forms of knowing and communicating? Such a focus seems to us especially important given Cheryl Geisler's finding that the North American undergraduate curriculum is designed to maintain a distinction between novice and expert by making "domain content" (i.e., the subject-matter of a discipline) what undergraduate students learn without making the learning of a discipline's "rhetorical process" (i.e., its forms and strategies of textual knowledge making) part of the curriculum. Do the writing to learn activities that our colleagues have designed reinforce this distinction or do they, at least to some extent, suggest the possibility of learning "rhetorical process" as well as "domain content"? As students write to learn a subject-matter, can they simultaneously begin to learn how to think and communicate like professionals?
To answer this question with respect to the activities our colleagues have designed, we need to distinguish between expert genres (such as scholarly articles, conference presentations, published book reviews, etc.) and curriculum or pedagogical genres (such as book reviews, essays, lab reports, exams, etc.). According to Berkenkotter and Huckin, "many of these pedagogical genres contain some of the textual features and some of the conventions of disciplinary genres but ... they are also linked to and instantiate classroom-based activities such as reading, wntmg, solving decontextualized math problems or conducting simple experiments of the kind found in lab manuals" (p.13). Each of the four activities that we discuss below clearly functions as a pedagogical genre in the sense that each addresses the rhetorical context of the classroom community, rather than the context of professional scholarship. However, as we hope to show, each of these pedagogical genres also implies the learning of at least some dimensions of professional practice and textual knowledge making. That is, these writing to learn activities are designed to begin to enculturate students into discipline-specific genres ofknowing and communicating, genres that approximate professional discourse. Figure 1 represents our perception of the basic relationship between these pedagogical genres and the learning of professional genres of thinking and communicating. We will flesh out this basic representation with specific details as we discuss each activity in tum: Drawing on this conceptualization of the relationship between pedagogical and professional genres, we tum now to the activities themselves. We will describe each in tum fairly briefly, drawing on the professors' own explanations of their intentions as well as our own perceptions of each Learning to Make design, and then close with a discussion that considers them more fully in relation to each other and to issues in WAC and genre theory.

Writing to Learn Activity 1: Learning Journal, Nursing
The first activity has been designed by Rick Vanderlee, a professor in Nursing who also is pursuing doctoral studies in education. Rick uses a learningjournal in his first-year "Professional Growth" course as part of a carefully designed sequence of writing activities (see Appendix A for an explanation of this sequence). According to Rick, the purpose of the journal is 1. to give each student insight into her or his own "emotional and cognitive rhythms as a learner and professional"; 2. to help students to think critically about the world they live in; 3. to allow Rick to read some sections of their journals (at their choice) so that he can learn about himself as a teacher (see Appendix A for the full text of Rick's journal explanation).
In many ways, the design ofRick's learningjournal epitomizes the traditional view of writing to learn as an informal, exploratory kind of writing that gives students the freedom to express themselves in unique, personal ways while simultaneously learning about a subject-matter. For Rick, this is not only the subject-matter of the Nursing curriculum but also, reflecting his own doctoral studies in education, the subject-matter of learning itself; that is, he asks students to reflect on their own learning styles. Although Rick provides general questions to prompt student writing, he explains that he wants the journal to be a place in which students can write in ways that suit their individual learning styles; he does not impose a particular form but instead encourages diversity of expression, welcoming narrative, poetic and multimedia approaches, for example, as well as more standard academic discourse. In this sense, we see the learning journal as a pedagogical genre intended to help students become "whole" people and, in the words of our university's stated mandate, "life long learners": the journal encourages personal development, intellectual and emotional growth, individual expression and self-knowledge. It is designed to help students, as Rick puts it, "find meaning" for themselves, not just within the course but in the longer term as well.
However, while promoting this personal development, the journal also fosters learning particular to the professional field of Nursing. Reflecting critically on their emotional and cognitive rhythms and on the world around them is a way for students to begin to practice the kinds of knowledge making that will help them to become better health care professionals. More concretely, it helps them to practice the kinds of writing now required in our province for health care professionals. As of 1998, legislation is in effect that requires all health care professionals to submit an annual dossier on their professional practices. According to Rick, on the one hand, this dossier is intended to motivate deeper reflective practices among health care professionals; on the other hand, it serves as a quality assurance measure. Thus, the learningjournal gives students an opportunity to learn -through practice -some aspects of genre knowledge that they will need to use strategically as health care professionals while at the same encouraging the overlapping goal of personal growth and expression (see figure 2).

Writing to Learn Activity 2: Exercise on Using an Academic Literature, Economics
The writing to learn activity presented by David Robinson, professor in Economics, at the 1997 WAC faculty workshop focuses less than Rick's on informal, individual expression and personal discovery and more on an explicit, structured learning about expert academic forms of communication. Entitled "Training first and second year students to use an academic literature", Dave has designed this activity as a way for students to investigate and familiarize themselves with the academic literature of Economics particular to his second-year course on "Strategic Thinking: Game Theory for Business and Social Science" (see Appendix B for his assignment description).
As a pedagogical genre, this activity provides students with precise and detailed guidelines for following a structured sequence of steps. These steps have a dual purpose: to help students learn about-that is, to recognize and identify-features of expert discourse in Economics, in particular the scholarly article genre, and, to a limited extent, to teach students how to enact aspects of expert genre knowledge, such as how to research and read a scholarly article and how to write an abstract. As Dave explains, one of the initial objectives of this sequenced assignment is to get students to locate scholarly periodicals and articles from the disciplinary sub-field of game theory in the library and to introduce them to citation practices in that field. These initial activities in turn provide the basis for students to identify specific aspects (such as problem-definition, justification of study, kinds of data, methodology and conclusion) of each article's content and rhetorical process, thereby further introducing them to disciplinary genre knowledge. The assignment also is intended to teach students how to perform some aspects of composing a scholarly article, such as writing an abstract, preparing tables and diagrams, providing references and composing an acknowledgment. Admittedly, this practice is far from the "real thing", given that first and second year students do not have the "domain content" or background knowledge to compose scholarship nor are they familiar with the scholarly contexts and audiences that professionals in the field respond to and address. The motivating and responding context for their texts remains the classroom with the teacher as reader and evaluator. However, while acknowledging the exigencies and expectations of the classroom as primary rhetorical situation for this assignment, we nonetheless find that the design ofDave's activity demonstrates an ingenious method for, at the very least, beginning to acculturate students into both the rhetorical process and the domain content of scholarship in game theory within the discipline of economics (see figure 3).

Activite "ecrire pour apprendre" 3: Exercice de
Pedagogical Genre •exercise to train students to use an academic literature •structured sequence of steps and explicit guidelines •assigned and evaluated by teacher in classroom context    The writing to learn activities we have just described demonstrate some of the diverse ways in which writing across the curriculum can implement both the principle of writing as a mode of learning in all disciplines and the principle of writing as specific to the ways of thinking and communicating within particular disciplines. As pedagogical genres, the writing to learn activities that our colleagues have designed clearly can play an important role in students' learning of a disciplinary subject-matter; more importantly, however, these genres can contribute, we maintain, to students' enculturation into the "rhetorical process" of a professional discourse community. We do not wish to overstate the extent of this latter learning, since necessarily enculturation is a gradual process which, as Berkenkotter and Huckin suggest, normally does not occur in a substantial way until graduate studies(p.118). But we are intrigued to discover that several teachers at our university are designing activities for undergraduate courses that seem to encourage learning the procedural knowledge of how to think and write in a discipline, and not only the declarative knowledge of the "facts" or content to be mastered in a course (Geisler,p.81,Walvoord and Sherman,p.59).
The kinds of activities that our colleagues identified as "writing to learn" suggests to us some of the forms of inquiry and modes of discourse validated by each of their disciplines. From our perspective as academics associated with the field of rhetoric and composition, Rick's learning journal most closely represents our expectations for the design of a writing to learn activity, primarily because it encourages exploratory writing and self-reflection. We also note, however, the relevance of this kind of writing to the development of a caring as well as knowledgeable nurse. Although we might be tempted to say that students from a range of disciplines could benefit from keeping this type of journal, the "professional growth" objectives motivating this assignment derive specifically from Rick's perception of the kinds of nurses he wants his students to become: nurses who have the emotional self-awareness and coping strategies to understand "what warning signals indicate that you are hitting an emotional low, and what factors tend to keep you going through the 'quitting times' oflow morale, depression and loss of confidence"; nurses who are capable of"raising questions, explicating new thinking and transforming your personal understanding of the world"; nurses who think carefully about "how justly, ethically and caringly we perform our actions" (Appendix A). Notably, Rick asks his students to engage in emotional and ethicalnot just intellectual -learning, learning which could be seen as exceeding the traditional boundaries of academic training and inquiry but which, Rick suggests, is central to his students' professional formation.
Dave's Economics assignment seems by contrast to embody a more traditional sense of academic disciplinarity, focusing as it does on the "academic literature" of a field (rather than, as in Rick's case, on self-reflection and self-development). Interestingly, Dave sees his assignment as appropriate for virtually any university discipline, arguingthat "University graduates should be able to retrieve information from the academic literature [of any given field]. They should be able to follow a debate through the literature, summarize it clearly and provide adequate references" (Appendix B).In its structure, then, Dave sees this activity as potentially valuable in many disciplines. We wonder though whether some fields of study might find the structure and objectives of this activity less meaningful to the development of disciplinary genre knowledge than others. Is it most appropriate for learning in the social sciences, rather than, for example, the humanities or natural sciences or engineering? Would Nursing students benefit from undertaking such an activity, perhaps in conjunction with or subsequent to the kind of learning journal that Rick assigns? We do not have answers to these questions but we raise them as issues. Certainly, Susan Peck Macdonald's study of differences in problem-definition in different areas of academic study suggests that initiating students into an "academic literature" may require not only a shift in the content but also perhaps the form of the pedagogical genre presented by Dave.
Had Dave not independently proposed his assignment as a "writing to learn activity", we confess that we might not have perceived it as such. This causes us to ask, how does one define "writing to learn"? Does writing to learn necessarily mean informal, exploratory, expressive writing or can it include more formalized and structured pedagogical activities? Within the tradition of composition studies exemplified by Knoblauch and Brannon's approach to WAC, the former understanding of writing to learn dominates and, in our own consultation with faculty, it is the one we tend to recommend. Yet we also recognize that the concept of "writing freely" mystifies the disciplinary and institutional exigencies which shape student writing and which students are quite aware of no matter how "free" we encourage them to be in their expression. Further, as Walvoord and Sherman note in the context of a Business course, students who adopted "freewriting" techniques for working on assignments received lower grades than students who "used more structured forms of pre-draft writing" (p. 91). They compare "the mixed results of teaching freewriting with the more uniformly positive results of teaching 'inquiry strategies' -that is, more focused exercises designed to guide students through a specific type of inquiry process"(p.91). In this sense, we could say that Dave's exercise as much as Rick's journal is designed to lead students through a type ofinquiry process specific to each of their disciplines. Both, then, are activities whose goals are to foster student learning, but the nature of the learning aimed at varies and hence the forms of discourse that students are asked to compose varies as well.
On peut interpreter l'exercice de comprehension de Lucien comme une activite a etre exploitee clans differentes disciplines. La recherche de renseignements precis pour se preparer a une autre activite plus complexe peut sans aucune doute etre reprise clans un autre domaine. Par contre Jes dernieres questions que Lucien pose a l'etudiant encouragent ce dernier a explorer surtout sa pensee philosophique. La croissance de la complexite des questions introduit le lecteur a une pensee plus abstraite. retudiant est amener a se questionner et a analyser le texte pour ensuite !'interpreter comme un philosophe.
The designs of our colleagues' activities also can be understood in terms of the ongoing debate among genre researchers and theorists about the extent to which it is possible or desirable to provide explicit instruction to students in disciplinebased genres of communication (for an overview of this debate, see Berkenkotter and Huckin, pp.151to163; see also Freedman "Learning";Freedman and Medway Genre, 1994, Freedman and Medway Teaching, 1994and Christie, 1987. For the most part, we would say that these writing to learn activities introduce students to discipline-based genres in an implicit, non-formulaic manner rather than through explicit, rule-based, decontextualized instruction. That is, as Aviva Freedman suggests, these activities seem to presume that students will learn how to communicate in disciplinarily appropriate ways by actually doing or performing the genres that characterize a field of study , rather than by consciously imitating models or applying sets of rules ("Learning", p.111). For example, Rick explains at some length the cognitive and emotional objectives of the learning journal and he provides explicit questions to prompt student writing-in this sense, the journal is by no means undirected or entirely open-ended. However, the assignment guidelines do not include specific models for students to imitate (not surprisingly, given that Rick wants to encourage students to write in ways that are personally meaningful and therefore welcomes a diversity of communicative forms) nor do they dictate a set of precise rules that define the composition of an appropriate journal entry.
I.:exercice de comprehension de Lucien n'inclut pas de modele specifique comme tel. Les questions sont presentees avec un niveau progressif de complexite. Lucien suppose que les etudiants apprendront a developper leur pensee philosophique en faisant l'exercice et non en imitant un modele clans le domaine ou en utilisant une serie de regles. I.:exercice en sociolinguistique reflete en partie ce principe; toutefois, ii amene l'etudiant a observer comment Jes differents auteurs presentent leurs arguments. Je presente deux ou trois articles en classe ou je demontre avec plusieurs explications comment Jes auteurs font connaitre le contenu. En exploitant ces articles, je donne aux etudiants des directives tres precises sur la fac;on dont ils devraient presenter leur projet. Nous etudions le contenu et la forme. Les taches demandees clans ce travail amene I' etudiant a etudier comment Jes experts clans le domaine de la sociolinguistique s'y prennent pour qu'a leur tour ii puisse presenter une analyse sociolinguistique.
Of the four activities, Dave's exercise explicates most concretely the features of academic genre that he expects his students to be able to identify and, to some extent, compose. His guidelines for writing a summary, for example, list specific features that the summary should include (Appendix B), as does his explanation of the abstract he wants his students to write. This kind of explicit description of features is intended to help students perform the exercise successfully. As Dave notes, "I take pains to demystify the task .... I provide very clear instructions on how to get good marks .... It is very important that they know how to satisfy my requirements. The marking scheme is designed to call their attention to the elements I want them to be aware of" (Appendix B).Dave's assignment description emphasizes the characteristics of successful final products, but it provides less guidance on the compositional processes for crafting these final products. Perhaps students' abilities to undertake this assignment successfully would be further enhanced ifDave offered as much guidance on writing processes as he does on the written products that he hopes students will create. In this way, the activity's design might be said to address "both the formal tyranny of standard structures and the heuristic processes through which generic form guides the creation and comprehension of substance" (Coe,p.182).

Conclusion
In sum, through the pedagogical writing to learn activities that our colleagues have designed, students potentially begin to become enculturated into disciplinary and professional genres of thinking and communicating. However, as we have seen, the ways in which this can occur vary considerably according to each teacher's disciplinary expectations and understanding of what it means to "write to learn". Further, while we have assumed that the study of the design of these pedagogical genres is valuable in its own right, obviously a fuller appreciation of the role that they play in the development of professional genre knowledge requires research into student practices and perceptions as well.
Finally, in closing we wish to note that the learning which takes place through these activities is not only in the direction of novices learning from experts and about expert forms ofknowledge making. In addition, experts -that is, the teachers who represent and work in the discipline -learn from their students' writing (see figure 6).

Pedagogical Genre Direction
Expert  Rick Vanderlee, for example, hopes that students will share their learning journals with him so that he can "see myself through your eyes and ... become aware of what I do that you find helpful and affirming and what I do that you find confusing or demeaning" (Appendix A). For Dave Robinson, the exercises that he asks his students to complete introduce him to numerous articles that he may well not have read yet; as he says, the exercises "contribute to my professional education and my stock of teaching materials" (Appendix B). Lucien Pelletier anticipe en lisant Jes reponses aux questions demandees qu'il pourra comprendre la pensee de ces etudiants face a la realite du bonheur. Ence qui me concerne, c'est un peu la meme situation que Dave Robinson; ces exercices me permettent 1) de lire certains articles qui ne font pas partie de ma bibliographie et qui contribuent a mon education professionnelle et 2) d'ajouter des ressources pedagogiques a mon enseignement.
In the views of our colleagues, the pedagogical genres that they assign do not function uni-directionally to to ensure "successful student absorption into existing systems" of "disciplinary order" (Malinowitz, p.294); according to them, student writing contributes, at least to some extent, to their own expert knowledge-making. This suggests a dynamic and to some degree reciprocal relationship between pedagogical and professional genres. Nursing, University of Calgary for generously sharing their approaches to writing across the curriculum with us and for permitting us to use their writing to learn activities as the basis for this study. The fourth activity to be discussed, from Sociolinguistique, has been designed by Renee Corbeil.
4. We are grateful to Russ Hunt and others at the Inkshed 15 conference for pointing out this distinction between the cognitive and expressivist traditions to us.
5. This perspective owes much to the 1970s research of scholars such as L.
Flower and J. Hayes as well as C. Bereiter and M. Scardamilia, among others.
7. Citing the work ofRamanathan and Kaplan, Johns goes on to caution Technostyle Vol. 15, No. 11999 Spring that "'voice' is an Amerocentric concept, which is highly problematic for students who are not mainstream North Americans because these students are not accustomed to speaking or writing in social contexts with 'personal voices"'(p.10).

Appendix A: R. Vanderlee's Assignment Description Monthly Summary Reports
Rick Umderlee

Writing Activities to Asses Learning
Satisfactory completion of the course will be demonstrated by learners through completion and submission of weekly Critical Incident Questionnaire responses, a Learning Journal and completion of a Participant Leaming Portfolio related to your learning in this course. The following sections will explain in more detail my ideas about the evaluation tools that will be used in this course.

Critical Incident Questionnaire (c1Q)
The CIQ is a single-page form that will be handed out at the end of class each week. It comprises five questions, each of which will ask you to write down some details about events that happened in the class, in lab or in practice that week. Its purpose is not to determine what you like or didn't like about the class or learning activity. Instead, it will get you to focus on specific, concrete happenings that were significant to you. At the end of the term, you will be expected, as part of your assigned course work, to hand in a summary of your responses. This summary will be part of the Participant Leaming Portfolio that will be described later in this syllabus. The intent of completing weekly CIQs is to make the course a better learning experience for you. The CIQ will make the class more responsive to any concerns you may have individually and as a group by alerting us to any ambiguities or confusions you may have about what is happening in this course. It will also help you find out about yourself as a learner, and finally, it will help build up important material for the assessed Participant Leaming Portfolio.
At what moment in the class this week did you feel most engaged with what was happening?
At what moment in the class this week did you feel most distanced from what was happening?
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took in class this week did you find most affirming and helpful?
What action that anyone (teacher or student) took in class this week did you find most puzzling or confusing?
What about the class this week surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reaction to what went on, or something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

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The purpose of this journal is three-fold. First, I hope it will give you some insight into your own emotional and cognitive rhythms as a learner and professional. Reflective journal writing is an opening, a way to explore what we can become without beingjudged. By this, I mean that you will become more aware of how you go about organizing your learning and knowing, what kinds of learning tasks you are drawn to, what tasks you resist and seek to avoid, what conditions encourage you to take risks in your learning, what warning signals indicate that you are hitting an emotional low, and what factors tend to keep you going through the "quitting times" oflow morale, depression and loss of confidence. A deeper understanding enables us to integrate former learning with experience, to form relationships between parts of knowledge and to search for meaning. Second, I want you to learn to think critically not only about yourself and who you are but about the world you live in. Writing critically is an important skill of a professional that involves raising questions, explicating new thinking, and transforming your personal understanding of the world. Reflection will help you move to an action-oriented process of making changes and to think critically about issues causes us to reveal what we think about and take for granted related to the human condition; what decisions we make based on our perceptions; and, how justly, ethically and caringly we perform our actions. Third, and more selfishly, I hope that you will be ready to share some sections of your journal with me. That will help me to see myself through your eyes and to become aware of what I do that you find helpful and affirming and what I do that you find confusing or demeaning. Knowing these things will help me change how I behave toward you and toward future learners. It will also create better connections between the learning I feel is important and your own needs and concerns. I suggest that you keep your journal on a weekly basis, and that you try to make a date with yourself at the same time each week to spend about twenty minutes doing this. You should write about whatever seems important to you as you reflect on your experiences as a learner. If you'd like some structure to help you with the first few weeks' entries, try writing a few lines in response to the following questions, in addition to following any instructions specified in the learning activities: What have I learned this week about myself as a learner?
What have I learned this week about my emotional responses to learning?
What were the highest emotional moments in my learning activities this week?
What were the lowest emotional moments in my learning activities this week?
What learning tasks did I respond to most easily this week?
What learning tasks gave me the greatest difficulties this week?
What was the most significant thing that happened to me as a learner this week?
What learning activity or part of a learning activity, or emotional response, most took me by surprise this week? Don't worry if your answers to these questions overlap or if you feel one question has already been answered in your response to an earlier question. Do try and write something thoughtful and meaningful, however brief, in response to each question. Even noting that nothing surprised you or that there were no high Technostyle Vol. 15, No. 11999 Spring or low emotional moments in your learning tells you something about yourself as a learner and the conditions under which you learn.
I will ask you for Monthly Analysis Reports to be submitted to me. In these monthly reports, I would like a cumulative analysis of the major themes, qualities, responses and characteristics that have emerged from your weekly entries. Use the same headings that you use for your weekly entries, or headings that we develop in class and add anything that seems important to say that has not already appeared in analysis. Description Training first and second year students to use an academic literature

A Strategy and a Sample Assignment
David Robinson Department ef Economics Laurentian University Overview University graduates should be able to retrieve information from the academic literature. They should be able to follow a debate through the literature, summarize it clearly and provide adequate references.
To ensure that they can use the literature in at least one field by the time they graduate, we have to begin teaching them the basic skills and concepts from the first year we have them.
For several years I have been using a simple sequence of exercises designed to introduce students to the literature in economics. The exercises work well. They are popular with students, although not easy. They are easy to mark, and actually contribute to my professional education and my stock of teaching materials.
The concepts that the students must acquire quickly include 1. The concept of a journal 2. The elements of a journal article, including a. Abstract b. Acknowledgements c. Defined problem d. Conclusions e. Applications £ References g. Notes 3. The concept of a citation Basic tools they must acquire in any discipline include 1. The set of journals in their field 2. A citation index or substitute for one The assignment sequence 1. I have students summarize articles in one or more journals. I usually start by assigning each student one issue of the Canadian Journal of Economics. (The example I have reproduced offers a selection of journals.) 2. I usually ask for an abstract on the second assignment (as in the example).
3. I require them to find two articles that cite the one they discuss in the third assignment. I introduce the assignment with a careful and colourful introduction to the concept of citations and the use of a citation index. It is a major achievement to reach this point. Once they grasp this idea they have begun to understand a scientific or academic literature. Until they grasp this concept they have nor really been introduced to any discipline.
On framing the assignments I take pains to demystify the task. I tell the class several times that I do not expect them to understand the whole article. I say I sometimes take a month or more to really understand an article. I emphasize that a skillful reader can "fake it", using the introduction, abstract, headings and conclusion to get a good idea about the content and often skipping the difficult parts. I also emphasize that writing effective summaries is a skill they will use in more advanced courses.
I provide very clear instructions on how to get good marks (see the example). I always mark generously. It is very important that they feel they know how to satisfy my requirements. The marking scheme is designed to call their attention to the elements I want them to be aware of

Strategic Thinking: Game Theory for Business and Social Science (Economics 2065)
Assignment 4 Purposes 1. to make you read at least two journal articles 2. to introduce you to the Canadian Journal of Economics 3. to make you use the Social Science and Humanities Citation Index 4. to make you write a formal abstract. 5. to make you summarize a discussion in the economics literature You are to (1)Find a game theory article in an academic journal and write about an eighthundred and ten word, typed, summary of that paper. The summary should make clear what the problem is that the paper addresses (5 per cent), why it matters (5 per cent), what data is used, what methodology is used (5 per cent) and what conclusions are presented (5 per cent). If there are qualifications, the summary should mention them. It should also include your own assessment (5 per cent) of the paper and its conclusions. If it is helpful in explaining the paper, you may include, with proper accreditation, diagrams or tables based on the material presented in the text. They do not count as part of the three pages required.
(2)Provide a list of other works (references, generally journal articles) to which you refer. The list must have at least three entries. They must be in the format used in the CJE (10 per cent).
(3)Write an appropriately graceful acknowledgment note as a footnote to the first page (10 per cent). If you have been unable to find anyone to talk to about the article, then acknowledge some imaginary friends. There are some nice examples of acknowledgments in the CJE, including some that are rather whimsical.
(4}Write an abstract of YOUR OWN PAPER (25 per cent). An abstract is separate from the paper. (Look the word up.) The form of an abstract can be seen in the c]E. An abstract is there to tell a reader if the article is of interest to her. It, like your summary, should state the problem the paper was written to address, or whatever else the paper sets out to do. It should say why the problem matters, it should describe the methodology, the data and the conclusions. The abstract is to be typed and on a separate sheet of paper. Remember that it is to be an abstract of YOUR paper. Your paper itself could be seen as an extended abstract.
The 30 per cent unassigned marks for this assignment are automatic for completion of the project on time. Try to select an article that is related to your interests so you can use it in your term project.

Some Journals Vlk Have That Publish Game Theoretic Articles
You may find it useful to look in the items on reserve for this course to find references to articles that may interest you. Your text also refers to some articles of interest.

Bonheur est Vértu
Il y a un genre de bonheur qui ne tient pas plus à nous qu'un manteau. Ainsi le bonheur d'hériter ou de gagner à la loterie; aussi la gloire, car elle dépend de rencontres. Mais le bonheur qui dépend de nos puissances propres est au contraire incorporé; nous en sommes encore mieux teints que n'est de pourpre la laine ; "Je porte toute ma fortune avec moi". Ainsi Wagner portait sa musique et Michel-Ange toutes les sublimes figures qu'il pouvait tracer. Le boxeur aussi a ses poings et ses jambes et tout le fruit de ses travaux autrement que l'on a une couronne ou de l'argent. Toutefois il y a plusieurs manières d'avoir de l'argent, et celui qui sait faire de l'argent, comme on dit, est encore riche de lui-même dans le moment qu'il a tout perdu.
Ce texte est admirablement écrit, mais pour le comprendre il faut en faire une lecture attentive. Lisez-le donc en vous efforçant de comprendre chaque phrase ou membre de phrase. Recherchez dans un dictionnaire le sens des mots que vous ne comprenez pas.
Il est recommandé aux personnes inscrites au programme LIP de faire réviser leur travail au Centre de rédaction universitaire avant de me le remettre.