Towards an Understanding of Mature Writing : Analyzing and Paraphrasing Cotnplcx Noun Phrases

T11is article challenges the commonly lu!ld view tlUlt long sentences and complex structures are 1111desirable features ef writing. Indeed the claim is made t/Ult,Jor prose intended far mature readers, writers must leam to use complex 1101m phrases in long sentences to emulate effective mature writing. Based 011 a scholarly article by a11 a1vard-wim1i11g writer, the analysis explains lww -ed, -ing, relative, verbless, prepositional, a11d to-infinitive clauses are used to create comp/e.....; postt11odifled noun phrases i11 differe11t positions in the sentence. For eac/1 example, a paraphrase is offered which does not use a complex 1101111 phrase, and the two versions are compared. In addition, anaphoric comple..x 11ow1 phrases are briiifly discussed.

syllable counts. Other formulas (e.g., by Dale and Chall, [ 1948]) rely more on vocabulary. There is a rich literature of discussion on the relevance and use of such methods as a guide to readability; see Karlinsky and Koch (1983) and Giles (1990) for details of some of the arguments presented and bibliographies on the subject. More recently, style guides have been programmed with the same notion, and they are quick to point out long sentences for the writer to re-examine. In addition, most textbooks give similar advice to their readers.
Readability formulas have their advocates, especially for evaluating texts appropriate for the general public or similar levels ofwritin~ ability. Schenck (1977), with some reservations, recommends their use for improving word and sentence length, and Powel (1981) advocates their use as a writing guide but feels they lack real help in editing. In contrast, McClure (1987) advises us to use readability formulas only after a draft is complete. And Vervalin (1980) suggests that writers use the simple Gunning Fog Index to write shorter sentences and vary sentence length.
It is thus with some trepidation that I here venture to suggest that we take a wider view of readability-at least for prose for mature readers-by acknowledging that some genres of writing demand long sentences and complex structures as an essential element of the genre. (I am assuming, of course, that this genre--Oiscursive language analysis for specialists in the subject-is one such genre.) My approach here follows the reasoning of Plung (1981), who points out that readability formulas do not "make allowances for the ... differences among various reading audiences" (p. 52). Plung also suggests that we advise technical writers to improve their writing "not with the use of readability formulas designed with application to other forms of writing, but with the insight of professionals who recognize the true complexities of technical writing" (p. 54).
Plung's view is supported by Bruce, Rubin md Starr (1981), who claim that readability formulas fail to ;iccount flir "hit kg101111d k11uwkdge ortlll" reader ... the purpose of the reader ... and the 11111posc of the person who is presenting the text to the rcader"(p. 54). lledish (I 9H I) identities many important variables not included in readability formulas, and Dmry (1985) points out that the formulas fail to account for sentence structure.
The general argument made recently by Wilkinson (1992) explaining the use of jargon and the passive voice also applies here. Claiming that we must understand and teach the fact that there are many genres and rhetorical situations, Wilkinson explains that we and our students must adapt our writ-ing styles according to the need and audience of the document. This view is in line with stylistic analyses (e.g., by Crystal and Davy [ 1959]) of the many genres oflanguage and work in genre theory and register analysis. Although the importance of audience appreciation has been a cornerstone of our specialty since its inception, this vital understanding of audience, purpose and mode of the document still seems illusive to many.

Pedagogical Applicatio11s
Even more controversially, perhaps, I am claiming that rnany engineering students have a greater difficulty in creating flowing prose with complex noun phrases and structures than they have in writing "plainer" prose-prose that would meet the requirements of readability formulas and the advice based on them and their premises. Because we have become pedagogically attuned to encouraging students to use short sentences and simple clause and sentence structures, our discipline has tended to concentrate on the related inter-sentential and inter-clausal connections.
Thus many textbooks explain how to use-and not use-"which," "this,"acronyms, synonyms, the grammar of ellipsis and parallel structure, punctuation with non-restrictive clauses and lists, and other features of a relatively simple prose style. In contrast, bey1.md relatively simple sentence combining (Strong, 1973), we have failed to address the need to help students to develop an ability to combine their thoughts in the way that experienced writers do: using long and complex restrictive clauses and subordinations in long and complex sentences.
The deficiency has been both in teaching aod research, and it is difficult to assess which should bear the greater blame. Teachers can claim that they have not been told that writing for mature readers is extremely complex, and that in any event their major task is to make sure that students can write at least qt 1itc simple prose. We obviously need more detailed research into complex prose style to !>et tlii!> record straight. Yet surely teachers must realize that the readability li.m1111l.1s aml the si111pli!>Lic rules of"effective" writing ;1re far from adequate for mature prose, and that their writing itself (apart from the sociology of audience appreciation, the psychology of the writing process, formats, and rules of usage) is inadequate.
Most researchers of non-literary writing have studiously avoided the difficult task of analyzing how good writers write, choosing instead to study the profession, audience, purpose, process, format, and usage instead of the actual language structures that we should be teaching our students to emulate. Thus, for teat.hers who arc aware of the nrrn to teach complex writing, there is little they can use as the basis for meaningful instruction. This article seeks to provide some of tl1c essentials for the creation of a theoretical framework to explain the complrxitics.

MotivatiollS
As an attempt to stimulate research and teaching of mature writing, I have chosen to concentrate here on what is perhaps the central feature of mature writing: the complex structures involved in postmodified restrictive clauses. Specifically, I am seeking to find ways of accounting for their complexities, and of helping students to convert less complex writing into the style used by very skilled writers of English. I have become aware of this subject as an important area ,of research and teaching from three independent sources.
The first of these sources resulted from my recent efforts to do the very opposite: to convert complex structures including restrictive postmodified noun phrases into "plain" language suitable for readers with limited linguistic comprehension abilities Gordan, 1994). This work has been developed to exrlain 111\\lly of the complexities in terms of established inter-clausal se-man\ie ttlttlon1, Fun her work applying the principles to impmving the readability of parts of a C:madian Act has been developed, and the project is cur~ rently being developed further to explain conditions in legal writing and theoretical principles of complex cohesion in English.
Clearly, the challenge was to sec whether the principles could be applied in reverse, given th:i.t, in paraphr:i.sing in either direction, there arc bound to be changes in style, emphasis and cohesion. Thus the aim here is to apply the principles of paraphrasing clauses into complex noun phrases as the basis for teaching students to produce writing for very mature readers. At the same time this paper documents the types and uses of restrictive postmodifiers in English.
The second source of motivation for this work occurred during my recent work on the corpus of The Strathy Language Unit at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. This corpus contains a large variety of texts of recent Canadian English use, together with the means of accessing words and groups within the texts. One of these texts is an article entitled "Museums and Federal Cultural Policy" by Michael Bell, which appeared in Queen's Quarterly, Autumn, 1987. Beautifully written and distinguished as a Governor-General's Award winner for non-fiction, this article nonetheless (or per hap~ therefore) consists predominantly oflong sentences :md long, complex 11mm plll"ases. The ar tide would 110 doubt he rejected out of hand by any self-respecting style checker, yet for intended readers it is a model of clarity, smonth tr:msitio11 :md mature style. Mr. Bell's article provided an i111port111l sti11111l11s for my study of complex noun phrases in rnature writing, and it is used as the basis for this present analysis.

The Pedagogical Motivatioti
The third motivation for this present work derives from my attempts over the years to encourage students to convert their often quite simple prose into a style more appropriate for professional readers. After some instruction and practice, most of my senior engineering students can write sound descriptions and ex-planations using relatively simple clauses and sentence structures. Yet I have found great difficulty in helping them to combine their ideas using the more complex structures employed by skilled writers. The students' writing can be criticized because of their short sentences, overuse of existential "there", poor connections with "this" and "it" (few know the difference), use of only relative clauses instead of all the types of restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, and overuse of coordination. Even when specifically asked to combine ideas using a style appropriate for mature readers, few are able to use subordination. Even fewer seem able to use associations or restrictive postmodifiers in their writing. Here is a typical ex."lmple of student writing: John Hopkins University is in Laurel, Maryland and researchers there have devised a new technique. This technique will produce nitrogenbascd materials, and could form the basis of a new class of semiconductor laser. Some semiconductors are currently in use. These are compounds of arsenic; ex."lmplcs arc gallium arsenide, aluminum arsenide, and indium arsenide.
While this style cannot be criticized for its grammar or clarity-and it would certainly pass readability tests and be approved by style checkers-it is stylistically unacceptable. Skilled writers fQr mature readers simply do not write like that! The short sentences, the two co-ordinations, and the overuse of "this" and "these" are obvious signs of a style more appropriate for readers at Tcchnostvk Vol. 11. No. 2 1993 perhaps a Grade 11 or 12 level. Less obvious signs are the simple subjects, the paucity of complex noun phrases, and the lack of subordination. Now compare this style with that of the original document: (l)Researchers at John Hopkins University in Laurel, Maryland, have devised a technique to produce nitrogen-based materials that could form the basis of a new class of semiconductor lasers .... The semiconductor lasers currently used are compounds of arsenic, such as g:illium arsenide, aluminum arsenide and indium arsenide. (New Scimtist, 21 April 1988, p. 31) This original text has longish sentences and has long subjects containing complex postmodifications; it also includes subordination and a long object and complement. No doubt a style checker would be horrified at being faced with two complex sentence;; containing nearly fifty words, yet the style is appropriate for the readers. Our understanding of "effective" writing must accommodate the teaching of such real prose to mature readers in our curricula.

Sentence Combining
I am advocating here that we can and should expect students to develop the ability to convert their often rather simplistic styles of writing to suit mature writers for at least some of their work. This means that they need to be able to combine short, simply-structured clauses and sentences into much more complex forms-those used by skilled and experienced writers. Some of the principles of sentence combining have been known for some time, and some texts provide drills to help students to combine ideas using nonrestrictive clauses and adjectives. An example is: Students are asked to combine these ideas using a more mature style, and two "transformations" are offered: 1. The glittering cars come cruising up Broadway. Their paint is harsh, metallic and highly waxed. There is a great rumbling of exhaust. Street lights explode softly off the primitive scene. 2. The cars that glitter come cruising up Broadway. Their metallic paint is harsh and highly waxed. There is a great rumble of exhaust. Lights on the street explode softly off the sccnc--which is primitive. (Strong, 1973, p. xi) While there are obvious problems with this example, the aim is laudable, though at an extremely low level of composition. More worrisome, though, is that the students are left entirely to their own devices, it being claimed that "every person who uses a language in his day-to-day life is a language expert" (Strong, 1973, p. xiii). Although this is true at lower levels of composition, we cannot assume that all our students have developed a knowledge or understanding of the complex features of mature writing style. And it is certainly not the case that technical writing teachers arc consciously aware of elements of mature style.
There is also work available that extends this simplistic sentence-combining approach into using -ed, -ing, and verbless clauses as well as relative clauses for editing texts Gordan, 1986a). In addition, a worked example of editing contains restrictive clauses as well Gordan, 1986b), although it does not provide any related analysis or explanation. We now need to build on this earlier work. For writing for mature writers, restrictive clauses and complex noun phrases play important cohesive and stylistic roles, and we therefore need to understand what they mean and how they contribute to the style and cohesion oft he text. We ;ilso need to know how to convert simpler ling11istic stnu 11111'.~ i11to 1011 i1 tivl"ly po~t1111Hlilled cb11sn.

Linguistic Background and Importance ef the Subject
The grammar and types of restrictive and non-restrictive postmodified noun phrases have long been ofinterest (Sweet, 1981 ), and many grammarians have discussed the subject (e.g., Jespersen, 1940;Poutsma, 192.6-29). The various types of clauses (relative,--ed, -ing, verbless, prepositional, toinfinitive) have been well analyzed ip isolated examples (Scheurwegs, 1959), Towards an Understanding of Mature Writing although their complex combinations have been inadequately studied. Some detailed accounts of the meanings and uses of the v:irim1s types of restrictive and non-restrictive clauses are also available (Quirk et al, 1985).
Of specific import:mcc for this present study is the work ofjohannesson (1983 ), who studied thous:mds of examples of English use ranging fi 0111 unrehearsed speech to Vc1y f(1r111:1l p1ose. I le ('OJISidercd :tit type-<; uf posunodification, and recognized the various levels of complexity and their relation to genre. He discovered a strong correlation between the use and complexity of postmodifying restrictive clauses and the formality of the language: the greater the fonnality, the greater the use ofpostmodifications to create complex noun phrases. Clearly complex noun phrases are distinctive markers of formal writing. The obvious pedagogical corollary is that writers must learn to use complex noun phrases if they are to emulate skilled writers.
Lest it be thought that 1·~nggerate the claim that complex noun phrases are important elements of a mature writing style, I include below a fairly typical paragraph from Michael Bell's article used as the basis for this analysis. The large noun phrases and other features are italicized to facilitate recognition.
(2) As a result of its re11iew of tire National Museum and the other 11111seu111s in the federal structure the Massey Commission recommendedtlrefonnation of a National Historic Museum to be na111ed the Canadian Historical J\.fose11111.
Both the M11se11111 of Nat11ral History and tl1e Canadian Historical M11se11111 were to have their ow11 boards oftnistees and directors witl1 access to tlie Minister tliro11:~l1 wl10111 tlir i\!lmr11ms 111cre to report to llir/iammt. The National Gallery would serve as the model. In addition the Commission recommended the creation of a Canadian 1W11se11111 of Science to be directed by the National Research Co1111cil. (p. 554) Clearly, complex noun phrases play important roles in mature writing. It is vital for us to understand how they work in text if we wish to help students to emulate such prose.

Converting Clauses Into Complex Noun Phrases
The discussion in this section shows how writers can convert statements and ideas in clauses and sentences into complex restrictively-modified noun phrases. For each example, the information is first given in relatively primitive style, followed by the original form published in the ;irticle used for this malysis. Rebted discussion explains the principles involved.
I am taking for granted that readers have an understanding of restrictive (or defining) and non-restrictive (or non-defining) clauses. For the purpose of most of this article, I use the quite simple distinction that non-restrictive clauses arc incidental information that can be-and usually are-separated from the remainder of the sentence by commas, or occasionally dashes or parentheses. There is, however, a clinc of restrictiveness including levels of restrictiveness, but that distinction is not a vital part of the discussion here. The types of restrictive clauses are defined and explained as they are introduced.

Using -ed Clauses
Clauses dominated by the -ed form of the verb are called -ed clauses.
Here is an example of a non-restrictive -ed clause: (3) This policy, biased towards the individual artist and individual artistcur;itor and against established institutions, h;is been detrimental to the public art museums (p.557).
The -ed cbuse is all the text between the comm:is, :ind it is clearly seen to be non-restrictive because it docs not restrict, define or limit the meaning of the preceding noun "policy". The commas reflect that textual meaning. The -ed form of the verb is so oiled bec;iuse most of them end in-ed, although there are many irregular -cd forms in English. It is not called a "past" form simply because it often has nothing to do with the past; all -ed clauses are tense less passives (no tense is indicated), and in this example any assumed time frame would be the present. Common uses for the -ed form, in addition to past active tenses, are the past, present and future passives. Here is an example using a postmodified noun phrase: Why has there been such a radical change in the perception of the National Art Gallery? The gallery is an institution which is entrusted with the stewardship of our national collections of art.
(4) Why has there been such a radical change in the perception of the National Arts Gallery, an institution entrusted with the stewardship of our national collections of art? (p. 552) As tense is unimportant here ("has been" could well have been used instead of"is"), the -ed clause is ideal. The complex noun phrase, the whole of the text after the comma, is a verbless clause (more on those later) in partial apposition with the National Art Gallery. The -ed clause ("entrusted ... art") restricts the meaning of the preceding noun "institution", and therefore the complex noun phrase is restrictively postmodified by the -ed clause.
I need to point out that the term "clause" is used here and in the related literature in a wider sense than is often used in traditional approaches, in which a passage of text is only a clause ifit contains a finite verb. The reason for this choice will be clear later, when we compare -ed and -ing clauses with relative clauses.
Example 4 shows how an -ed clause is used in a complex noun phrase at the end of a complex sentence. The following is an example in which the sentence starts with a complex noun phrase postmodified with an -ed clause: A short-lived Conservative government was led by Prime Minister Joe Clark. It initiated during its tenure a review of federal cultural policy to be chaired by Louis-Applebaum, retired Excc11t ivc Director of the Ontario Arts Council.
(5) The short-lived Conservative government led by Prime Minister Joe Clark initiated during its tenure a review of federal cultural policy to be chaired by Louis-Applebaum, retired Executive Director of the Ontario Arts Council. (p.557) The -ed clause "led by Prime Minister Joe Clark" is an agentive tenseless passive defining the government being referred to. Note that the use of the indefinite article for the formal introduction is changed to the definite article in the original version because the noun phrase is now a defined topic. This example also includes a restrictive passive to-infinitive clause ("to be chaired by Louis-Applebaum") and a non-restrictive verb less clause in apposition at the end. (This last clause is not an -ed clause as "retired" here is an adjective, not a verb form.) An index at the end of this article lists and identifies all restrictive ;111d non-restrictive clauses in the examples cited.
Restrictive -ed clauses occur in many textual environments with other forms of restrictive connection within complex noun phrases. An example with two coordinated -ed clauses is: This was an example of a classic management weakness of divided responsibility. This weakness is decried in every basic management text and avoided in every successful organization.
(6) This was an example of the classic management weakness of divided responsibilitydecried in every basic management text and avoided in every successful organization. (p.556) As "This" re-enters two large preceding sentences, and we need to re-enter the preceding noun phrase as the subject of the second sentence, we cannot use "This" again, and so the rather cumbersome "This weakness" is used in the paraphrase. The whole difficulty is avoided, by the original text, which uses two restrictive -ed clauses in coordination with "and."

Using -ing Clauses
Hestrictivc and 11<111-rc!>trictivc clauses domin:tted by thl'. -ing ltirm ofa verb arc called -ing clauses. Some -ing clauses arc used to indicate the means by which so1m:thi11g is dune or co indicate a cause-effect relationship between clauses Oordan, 1992); others provide information about a noun. In the first example the restrictive -ingclause provides further information: The task force surveyed the country at a time when the art museums were very tender and distressed: It was bound to be exposed to strong presentations, and these would reflect recent experience. (7) The task force surveyed the country at a time when the art museums were very Lender and distressed. It was bound to be exposed to strong presenlations reflecting recent experience. (p. 563) The awkwardness of the first version is partly due to the three short clauses, but is :llso nc:atnl by tlic: 11c:c:d to i1Hlic:11c-111rnblity ;11uVll1 1c-11~c wit Ii the verb "reflect." Should "would be" or "would be bound to be" be used instead, or should the modal be omitted to create an author assessment at this point in the text? The need to make such a decision is avoided by the restrictive -ing clause "reflecting recent experience." The complex noun phrase in Example 7 is at the end of the sentence. Here is an example in which the -ing clause postmodifies the subject of the sentence: Throughout most of 1-986 trustees, members and workers participated in the examination of the ills of the National Museums of Canada. The participants represented some two thousand of Canada's museums, public art galleries and other heritage organizations. In the original the second sentence becomes the restrictive -ing clause "representing ... organizations" to create a complex subject for the sentence.
While -ing clauses can be useful at the start and at the end of sentences, they prove even more useful when they create complex noun phrases in the middle of sentences. Here is such an example: The judgments of its staff, often closer to art criticism than to the history of art, are very sensitive decisions. They contribute to the formation of our visual culture, and of all such decisions these judgments are among the most sensitive. They need to be safeguarded from direct political intervention.
(9) The judgments of its staff, often closer to art criticism than to the history of art, are among the most sensitive decisions contrib11tit1g to the for111aLio11 ofou1 visual culture and need to be safeguarded from direct politic1l i111nve11tion. (p. 562) It i~ r.xt1r111rly dillin1lt to parapl11;1sc the ori~i11al without using a restrictive postmodifier, and the difficulties with the first version are self evident. This example contains a non-restrictive verbless clause ("often ... history of art"), which adds to the complexity of the sentence.

Using Relative Clauses
Relative clauses arc dominated by the relative pronouns "which," "that," "who," "where," and "when." Whereas "that" is used only for restrictive clauses, all the others are used for both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. Thus, except when the writer elects to use "that" for a restrictive clause, we must rely on the sense of the text and the presence or absence of commas to recognize whether the clause is restrictive or not. The same applies for -ed and -ing clauses of course, so there is no additional difficulty in interpreting the meaning of relative cbuses.
Both -ed and -ing clauses can usually be converted into relative clauses. For -ed clauses, we simply add a relative pronoun plus a form of the verb "to be." For -ing clauses, we have to add a relative clause and change the verb form. Because of the close affinity between -ed. -ing and relative clauses, it is convenient to call them all clauses, and define the term "clause" to include passages of text dominated by non-finite as well as finite verb forms.
In the article being studied, the writer uses "that" rather than "which" for his relative clauses. Here is an example where the relative clause occurs at the end of the sentence. To add lo the value of this cx."lmple, the paraphrase is offered for the included -ed clauses as well.
Most hoped that the National Museums Task Force, chaired by William Withrow and Clement Richard, would be able to arrive at a diagnosis and recommend a treatment. This would help the four national museums take a position oflcadership. This position would be based on museum performance, not ~;,itional designation.
(10) Most hoped that the National Museums Task Force, chaired by William Withrow and Clement Richard, would be able to arrive at a diagnosis and recommend a treatmenttluit would help the four national museums take a position ofleadership based on museum performance, not national designation. (p. 552) The complex nominal in the original ("a treatment ... designation") contains a restrictive relative clause ("that ... designated") postmodifying the head noun "treatment." Within that relative clause there is a restrictive -eel clause ("based ... designated") postmodifying the complex head "position of leadership." In the following example the relative clause occurs as part of the subject of the sentence. The sentence also contains a restrictive -ed clause: A committee carried out the review under the Liberals. It produced the Report of the Federal Cultural Policy Review Committee. The report being referred to was published in 1982. The paraphrase is particularly awkward at the end as it was necessary to include the "restrictive" semantics involved, that is, the committee produced several reports and we are just referring to this particular one. The original avoids the need for any such contrivance, incorporating the restrictive relative clause as part of the subject of the sentence.
The complexity increases :is the relative cla11~e hen >llws more embedded within structures ofa co111plcx scntc111T. I ll"1<" is a11 cxa111ple where tht'. restrictive rebtive cla11se is pa110L1 q11a:-.i-n>11jui11nl ~11\~jn:t: The National Gallery staff, along with intcn.:stcd parties outside the museums (often fonner directors) and others, lobbied actively for the dismantling of The Corporation. The others involved in this action were members of museums, and these museums make up a substantial portion of The Corporation. ·1;.,-1.,,mtvll" \li,1 11, No. 2 1 ')93 (12) The National Gallery staff, along with others in the museums that make up a substantial portion of The Corporation, and interested parties outside the museums (often former directors), lobbied actively for the dismantling of The Corporation. (p. 560) The restrictive relative clause occurs with one of two branches quasicoordinated to the head of the subject. The paraphrase removes that element from the sentential environment to allow it to be detailed without the need for a relative clause. This example also includes a restrictive verbless clause ("outside the museums"); these arc dealt with next.

Using Verbless Adjectival Clauses
The restrictive information "outside the museums" in Example 12 could have been given in the form of the restrictive relative clause "who are outside the museums." However, as tense is not needed here and there is no need for a modal (can, should, might, etc.), we can "delete" the relative clause and the form of the verb "to be" -and so "convert" a relative clause to a vcrbless clause. The term "vcrblcss clause" is used to describe all such passages of text, restrictive or non-restrictive, that arc n<;>t otherwise classifiable as any of the other forms of noun phrase connection. Verbless clauses can be dominated by adjectives (often called adjectival clauses), by prepositional clauses, or by other means; appositions and many parenthetical insertions are verbless clauses.
Using the same argument for calling-ed and -ing clauses "clauses," we can stretch the definition further to include "clauses" that are not dominated by any form of the verb. Exactly how far the definition should be so usedor whether a new term should be coined-is open to debate. In this article I draw the line at verhless clauses and call stretches of text dominated by prepo-:-.it ions "pn-pu~itiun.il g1 u11ps." A restrictive adjeuival da11'.'>c appc1rs at the end of the sentence in the following example: "[T] he new programmes of assistance to museums fall under the direct responsibility of the Minister of Communication" to be administered by an Assistant-Deputy Minister upon the advice of an advisory committee. This committee would be "broadly representative of the museum community." (13) "[T]he new programmes of assistance to museums fall under the direct tesponsibility of the Minister of Communication" to be administered by an Assistant-Deputy Minister upon the advice of an advisory committee" broadly representative of the museum community." (p. 567, quotations in original) The relative clause counterpart would be "which would be 'broadly representative,"' but the shorter verbless clause dominated by the adjective "representative" is used instead.
In the next example a brgc adjectival clause is used to post modify a noun that is part of the subject of a sentence: Over the years conflict in the priorities of an agency has become apparent. This agency is responsible for both the operations of the four national museums and the granting programmes to other museums in the country.
(14) Over the years conflict in the priorities of the agency responsible for both the operations of the four national museums and the granting programme~ to other museums in the country has become apparent.
(p. 565) Again the use of the indefinite article becomes necessary in the paraphrase. The original uses an :idjcctival cbusc ("responsible ... in the country") to restrict the me:inin~ofthe noun "agency." Adjectival clauses often occur with other types of restrictive clauses. Here is an example in which a restrictive relative clause is embedded within a restrictive adjectival clause: Until the recent changes in the scheme for funding galleries ... many art museums experienced (and appreciated) little or no direction from the Canada Council. The Council hopes to enjoy a similar relationship with the federal government.
15) Until recent changes in the scheme for funding galleries ... many art museums experienced (and appreciated) little or no direction from . t , , l 11 "-T,..., '"l 1001, the Canada Council, a relationship similar to that 111l1icl1 the Council hopes to enjoy with the federal government. (p. 562) The paraphrase emphasises the Canada Council as theme of a new sentence, whereas the original co11ti1111cs the relationship as theme of the restrictive adjectival clause dominated by the adjective "similar." Note that "which" is used for the restrictive relative clause to avoid the difficulty of two "thats."

Using Prcpositio11al Gro11ps
Prepositional groups arc by far the most common form of postmoditication (see the index at the end of this paper). They are almost always used restrictively, and follow the pattern "preposition + definite article + noun." The term "preposition" is being used here in a wider sense than just for the indicators of position ("on, in, under,"etc.). We are also interested in the more metaphorical prepositions (such as '"under' the control of," "'on top of' the task," and '"on' [the subject of] the report") as well as the semantic prepositions such as '"for' (the purpose) of," '"by' the Council" [as agent], and '"of' Canada Council" [as possessive or related meanings].
Prepositional groups-arguably also "clauses"--often occur in strings of two, three or even more, in complex postmodified noun phrases. Some analyses of the semantics of such groups in the abstracts and titles of technical papers is avaihble Oord:m, 1992), but there is otherwise little detailed analysis of this important aspect of English use. 1s: An example containing prepositional groups at the end of the sentence Following two years of planning and discussion the National Museum Policy was announced in 1972 and the National Museums of Canada was given the responsibility to administer the programmes of grants and services. These programmes were for museums throughout Canada. The paraphrase required the classifying noun "programmes" after "these" because there are three plural nouns that "these" could refer to. The paraphrase must also contain a main verb, and so a decision regarding tense is necessary (is it "are" or "were"?). The need for an additional noun and a decision regarding tense is avoided in the original.
Example 16 shows coordination by and within the complex head of the total noun phrase ("The programmes ... Canada"). In the next example, coordination occurs in two parts of the 1101111 phrase; it also demonstrates the use of prepositional groups based on deverbal nouns (Akimoto, 1989): For example, The National Gallery of Canada has achieved considerable success in collecting and exhibiting art. This art is of the late 1960s and 1970s. The paraphrase uses a complex verb structure ("success in" +"-ing") to place "art" as the object of the first sentence; the original uses the deverbal nouns "collection" and "exhibition" with a prepositional group instead.
As discussed elsewhere Gordan, 1993), deverbal nouns operate well with prepositional groups. Prepositional groups often occur with other restrictive postmodifiers. Here is an example including a prepositional group containing an -ed clause: The Task force was shocked at a problem oflow environmental quality. They were concerned about some buildings. These were ncc11pied hy the national 11111~c11111s.
(18) The task force was shocked at a problem of low environmental quality of some of the buildings ocwpied by the national museums.
(p. 563) It is extremely difficult to paraphrase writing containing several prepositional groups, as we see in the awkwardness of the paraphrase here. This points to the need for writers to be able to use strings of postmodifiers effectively. In the original here the restrictive -ed clause is embedded within the final prepositional group.

Using to-Infinitive Clauses
The to-infinitive clause as a pre-or post-clausal subordinator is a wellknown indicator of purpose, with its counterpart "means" information coming in the main clause (e.g., "To escape they jumped out of the window."). Purpose is also clearly indicated by the two to-infinitive clauses in: (19) The purposes of the Corporation, as defined in the Act, are "lo demonstrate the products of nature and the works of man ... so as lo promote interest therein throughout Canada and lo disseminate knowledge thereof." (p. 565) The main purpose has two sub-purposes.
What is less well-known is that to-infinitive clauses are also used extensively within many complex verb structures and also (of interest to us here) as restrictive postmodifiers within complex' noun phrases. Here is a simple example: Even the basic requirements of care and cataloguing have more often than not gone wanting: all the National Museums suffer from a lack of staff. The duty of these staff is to care for the collections.
(20) Even the basic requirements of care and cataloguing have more oftl·n than not go11C' wanting: all the National M11se11111s s111Tcr from a Lick ifst;iffto c1rc for the cnllcctions. (p. Sf1 (1) The paraphrase uses a post-triggered associated nominal containing the clausesignalling word "duty" (meaning purpose); the original contains a to-infintive clause postmodifying the head noun "staff" to create the complex noun phrase ("a lack ... collections").
To-infinitive postmodifiers often occur in much more complex situations, as seen in: The Applebaum-Hebert report affirmed the idea of arm's length at a time wh«"n the federal government was embroiled in controversy. The controversy was over the introduction of formal ministerial directives. These directives were intended to ensure that crown corporations were in the public interest as determined hy the elected government.
(21) The Applebaum-Hebert report affirmed the idea of arm's length at a time when the federal government was embroiled in a controversy over the introduction effonnal ministerial directives to ensure that crown corporations were in the public interest as determined by the elected government. (p. 558) The original contains a large to-infinitive clause postmodifying "directives," which is part of the two-s~age prepositional group governed by the partitive preposition "of" and the situational preposition "over." This combination avoids the need for the re-entries of"controversy" and "directives" and the sentence starts with "The," "The," and "These," seen in the paraphrase.
To-infinitive clauses also occur as part of the subject of the sentence, as we will see in the next example. This example also contains an instance of a pull-indicated relative clause combined with prepositional groups to end the sentehctn Renovations hover in the background for the Victoria building. These would be to improve the housing for the National Museum ofNatural Science. The National Museum of Science and Technology looks on enviously from an old bakery huilclinr,. It has occupied th:\l building from the beginning of its brief history.
(22) Renovations for the Victoria Building to improve the housing for the National Museum ofNatural Science hover in the background and the National Museum of Science and Technology looks on enviously from the old bakery building it has occupied from the beginning ofits brief history. (p. 568) Four sentences become one in the original, which starts with a complex noun phrase ("Renovations ... Science") containing a to-infinitive clause as well as two prepositional groups dominated by "for" (twice). The second part of the coordinated sentence includes a null-indicated relative clause to create a complex noun phrase to end the sentence. The relative pronoun "that" could h:tve been used to indicate the st:trt of th:tt clause.

Usi11.iz Otlia Clt111sc-N.clatio11al Indicators
Purpose is just one of many "clause relations" (Winter, 1970), or "relational propositions" (Beekman and Callow, 1974), or "rhetorical predicates" (Longacre, 1974) that describe the semantic connections between clauses, sentences and paragraphs. They also apply as semantic connections between the head of a complex noun phrase and its restrictive postmodifier as we have just seen with the purpose relation. Here is a clear example of a time relation.
[M]odern art Ins been an elite practice. This has been true since the 1960s. The original uses the clause "since the 1960s" to post modify the noun "art," creating a complex noun phrase as the subject of the sentence.
The word "purpose" is one of a relatively few "Vocabulary 3" words (Winter, 1977) that tell rc:tders what the clause relation is. They provide more precise signalling of the relations tlun do coordinators (Vocabulary 1) and co1111ccto1s (Voc:tlml:11y 2). Other Vocabulary 3 words arc "cause, effect, result, basis, asscss111ent, 111ethod, ways, n1cans, co1nparison, difference and similar." These words often occur with prepositional groups; two such instances occllr i11 the following example: The recommendations of the Massey Commission have been implemented in a piecemeal and uncoordinated way, and the Applebaum-Hebert Committee tried to identify the results of this. However the two groups gave different prominence to the idea of heritage, and this difference is significant .
..... The paraphrase has to establish the implementation before starting the main idea, whereas the original embeds this within a complex noun phrase. The original contains two Vocabulary 3 words and four prepositional groups. Note that it also contains a restrictive -ed clause dominated by the "given," as the verb "give" is irregular.
As the opposite relation to purpose is the means of achieving it, the two relations usually occur together. Here is an example containing a purposemeans relation as well as two prepositional groups as postmodifiers.
The Bovey Task Force made sixty recommendations, none of which to date has been acted upon. They deal with the broad environment of funding for the arts at a time when the government wants to reduce its contributions to arts and culture, and is seeking ways of doing this.
(25) The sixty recommendationsef the Bovey Task Force (none of which to date has been acted upon) deal with the broad environmentef funding for the arts at a time when the government is searching for ways to reduce its contribution to arts and culture. (p. 567) The paraphrase still retains a two-stage prepositional group in the middle as there is no apparent way of avoiding that co11s1r11ctio11. The original uses a ~i11glc-cb11\C SClltl"lllT co11L1i11i11g 1111.-.-p1q111~.iti1111;i) l'.fl>llj>\ ;111d .1t the end-a mca11s-p11rposc etJ1111cctio11 sig11allcd by !lit' Vrn ;1li11b1 y .\word "w;1y\" ;111d the rnlnctrve to··i11fi11i1ivc 1.l.111~•:.

Using Coordinated Restrictives
It is possible to have two or more branches of restrictive information about the head noun of a complex noun phrase. Here is an example of coordination within a prepositional group at the end of the sentence: The Canada Council, among other agencies, opposed the bill and rallied support. This support came from the arts community; it also came from the Conservative members of the Commons committee.
(26) The Canada Council, among other agencies, opposed the bill and rallied support.from the arts community and Conservative members of the Commons committee. (p. 558) The head noun of the complex noun phrase in the original is "support," and this is postmodified by the prepositional group ("from ... committee"). Coordination with "and" occurs within this group.
Coordination also occurs between two verbs within a restrictive relative clause in: The Council developed funding programmes. These were for institutions, but were on the condition that they had to exhibit art work, and the work had to be by Canadian contemporary artists. The institutions also had to purchase such work. The paraphrase avoids all complex noun phrases, but at considerable cost to readability. The elegance of the original is created by the two prepositional groups, the relative clause, and the coordi11atio11.
Towards ;m Understanding of Mature Writing (28) The Camda Council thereby combined the awarding of grants for public art mu~nuns to purchase works of art with a programme that competed in the same marketplace with its public art museum clients i11 their principal function, collecting. (p. 556) The original co11tai11s twu large, complnc 111H111 pl11ascs, thc litst c11111ai11i11g four prepositional groups and the second containing a relative clause and a prepositional group. It is only because of the compactness of these two complex noun phrases that they can be combined into a single sentence in this way.

Using Split Nomi11als
Large nominals-another term for noun phrases----can be split at any of their boundaries where a· new clause or group starts. This is often done in the genre of abstracts, for 'example, to avoid an extremely large subject ending with a small verb phrase (e.g., "arc studied") at the end of a sentence. Here is a simple example: There are many misunderstandings, and these occur within and about NMC. They arise simply because of a lack of knowledge. This lack is about the activities of the Corporation, and it also concerns its various components.
(29) Many misunderstandings arise rvitlii11 and about NMC simply hcca11sc nf a bck of 1111<krstanding of the ovt"rall activities of the Corporation and its various components. (p. 56(i) The subject of the original sentence is the complex noun phrase, "Many misunderstandings within and about NMC," which contains a postmodified restrictive prepositional group dominated by the coordinated prepositions "within and about." This noun phrase is split at its boundary between the head noun ("misunderstandings") and the prepositional postmodification by the verb "arises." The original also contains two other prepositional groups, the second of which includes a coordination. T.-rhnmrvlr Vol. 11. No. 2 1993 The complex noun phrase is split by the verb and complement in the following ex:imple: The ftllll" ll:llio11:1l lllllSl"lllllS or Ca11:id:i could form administratively :lll(OllOlllOllS, f1 e1·-st:llllli11g institutions J.lld they could then be :1< n>1111uhle fo1 11111seu111 performance. The prognosis is good for this. (30) [T] he prognosis is good for the four national museums of Canada as administratively autonomous, free-standing institutionsaccou11table for museum performance. (p. 568) The paraphrase does cont;iin a postmodified noun phrase ("The prognosis of this"), but it is small and unavoidable. The complex noun phrase in the original is the whole of the sentence except for the verb ("is") and complement ("good"), which split the noun phrase after the head noun ("prognosis"). The original contains a prepositional group that including an adjectival clause dominated by "account;ible." There is a natural sequence for the order of strings of prepositional groups (as yet undocumented), and the "agentive" usually comes last. When, however, the noun phrase is long, or we wish to stress the agent, the agentive component can be used to split the natural sequence of prepositional groups. This can be seen in the following example: All the past excuses for 11011-perform;incc h;i\!e been removed. This lus hce11 achieved hy the federal gover11111e11t, which has adopted rcco11111H'lllbtio11s. These have been ;idvocated by the National Museums 1ask Poree. The first "by" in the origin:il indicates means ("by means of") and the head noun of the fin;i) noun phrase is a devC<r:bal noun ("adoption"). This head is postmodified by first the ;igentive component (dominated by "by") and then two nested prepositional groups. The 'agentive group splits the natural sequence of the noun phr:ise.

Converting Clauses into Anaphoric Noun Phrases
Although many of the complex noun phrases studied so far include intra-sentential cohesive links, we have been more concerned with understanding the connections not just within the sentence but within the noun phrase itself We will now turn our attention to noun phrases that have clear inter-sentential links. These are essentially of two types. The first are those that re-enter a noun or noun phrase to tell readers something more about it; these are "lexical" connections. The second type are those that re-enter a clause or sentence (or even a paragraph or more) into a "clause relation"; these are "semantic" connections. Most of the complex noun phrases that exhibit this features are "associated" in some way with something introduced earlier in the text.

Using Untriggered and '[riggered Associations
When a noun phrase is lexically connected to an earlier noun or noun phrase it is said to be an "associated" noun phrase, or "associated nominal." When the new noun phrase does not mention the earlier one (the "trigger" [Hawkins, 1978)) in anyway, it is said to be untriggered; and when the new noun phrase is restrictively postmodified by some mention of the trigger, it is called a "post-triggered associated nominal" Oordan, 1984). Both types of association are included in the following example: But the Task Force on the National Museums did not have far to look for discussions of the real problems of the National Museums of Canada ... (32) But the Task Force on the National Museums did not have far to look for discussions of the real problems of the National Museums of Canada ...

9) Internal Communication
Internal corporate communication is weak. The problem is attributable to the structure ef the National Museums of Canada. (p. 566) The trigger for section 9) is the "National Museums of Canada," introduced earlier in the text within the two postmodifying prepositional groups. The noun phrase "Internal Communication" is an untriggered associate, and the final noun phrase ("the structure ... Canada") is a post-triggered association because the trigger is used to restrictively postmodify the head noun ("structure").
Post-triggered associations can occur in two or more stages within the same complex noun phrase. This is shown in the following example: The National Museums of Canada incorporate in a single administration Canada's four National Museums: The National Museums of Canada have a J:'lational Programmes Branch, and this branch has five divisions. These divisions provide services and assistance to the Canadian museum community to further the objectives of this policy. The par;iphrasc formally :i1mou11ccs the parts of the main topic. The complex noun phrase as subject of the original is a two-stage association using prepositional restrictive postmodification. The noun phrase at the end ("the objectives of this policy") is also a post-triggered association, re-entering the preceding sentence (not cited here) as, ~_JJolicy" in the postmodification. 'f()w:i.rcls an U 11derst:i.11di11g of M:i.ture Writing

Using Other Post Triggers
Although prepositional post trigger iug is by far the most common method, all the other methods discussed here can be used. Lexical continuity in associations can also occur within the sc11t1·11cc. Hoth of these IC:i.t11res can be seen in the next exa111ple, i11 which post triggering is achieved by :i.ncil cL111s1·: The Gallery, at its appearance before the Task Force, dramatically underlined its burden of bureaucracy by wheeling in a shopping cart. This was full ofreports, and these reports are required ofThe Gallery by The Corporation.
(34) The Gallery, at its appe:i.r:i.nce before the T.1sk Force, dramatically underlined its burden of bureaucracy by wheeling in a shopping cart Juli of reports req11ireil of it by The Corporation.(p·. 560) The complex noun phrase in the original includes an adjectival clause dominated by "full," an -ed clause signalled by "required," and an agentive prepositional group indicated by "by." Between sentences, post-triggered associations take the form "The X ofY," where X is a feature or part of the trigger and Y is the trigger or some substitute for it. Within the sentence, the same form is used, except that the substitute form becomes "which." This is shown below: The National Museum of Man and the National Museum of Natural Sciences were established and housed in the Victoria Building. This building has floors, and these slope dramatically. The paraphrase is absurd, of course, and an association is mandatory in such circumstances. Between sentences an acceptable form would have been "The floors of the building," but the original must be used within the sentence.

Sunnnary anll Conclusions
Alll1011J',h 1c:ubhility fiu 1111ila~ have rlwir 11scs fi>r csti111:lli11g readership lewis at the lower levels of readership, their usdi.1l11ess is limited at the higher levels of readership-a fact acknowledged by Gunning's catch-all"+ 13" category. Indeed the principles of short sentence length and relatively few syllables on which many formulas arc based arc misleading criteria for judging the appropriateness of writing for linguistically sophisticated readers. In assessing such writing the very opposite approach is needed.
As a result of earlier corpus-based work that identifies complex noun phrases as being important stylistic markers of mature writing, we recognize the need for teachers of technical writing to more fully understand the complexities of the English noun phrase. And from pedagogical needs arising from weaknesses in student writing, we can recognize the need for established systems for paraphrasing single sentences and clauses into nominal form in different parts of the sentence. This article has sought to lay the groundwork for both these needs.
It is not that the principles espoused by readability formulas and much textbook advice on "clear" writing are wrong. It is more that they are limited to a relatively simplistic style of writing. While our students unquestionably need to be able to write relatively simple prose for some audiences, they also need to be able to write more complex prose for their fellow professionals and similarly educated re;iders. The students' understanding of the importance of"audience" for their work must go beyond the usual platitude that forms the psychological basis for all writing work; it must also encompass a specific understanding of the effects of audience on word choice, sentence length, ;ind clause and sc11tencc structure. Such a genre-sensitive approach must include a knowledge of, and an ability to use, complex noun phrases.
We have seen that writing for mature audiences contains, as essential components, long complex noun phrases postmodified by various types of clauses and groups of text. The use of-ed, -ing, and relative clauses has been demonstrated in various positions in the sentence: at the end, at the start, and embedded within other structures in the middle. The connection between relative clauses and the other postmoc;lifying forms is established, and both verbless clauses and prepositional groups arc illustrated. Logical connection through Vocabulary 3 linking within the postmodification is explained, and some of the complexities of combinations of postmodifications are also discussed.
Untriggered and post-triggered anaphoric postmodified noun phrases are also explained as lexical associations linked to earlier nouns within the sentence and within the wider discourse. They arc also identified as creating clause-relational cohesion connected to clauses and sentences earlier in the text.
To provide a means of further study based on the examples cited here, the following list of restrictive and non-restrictive postmodifications in the examples cited is provided. For each occurrence the example number and identifying information are given.